REPORT. January Yakubu Joseph (University of Tübingen, Germany) Prof. Sati Umaru Fwatshak (University of Jos, Nigeria) Disclaimer

Transcription

1 BASELINE STUDY OF THE ENVIRONMENTAL SUSTAINABILITY AND CLIMATE CHANGE PROGRAMME OF THE THEOLOGICAL EDUCATION BY EXTENSION (TEE) OF THE EKKLESIYAR YAN UWA A NIGERIA (EYN) REPORT January 2014 Yakubu Joseph (University of Tübingen, Germany) Prof. Sati Umaru Fwatshak (University of Jos, Nigeria) Disclaimer The views expressed in this report are those of the authors and do not necessarily represent those of Mission 21 or EYN Gunnar Theological Education by Extension. The impact evaluation was sponsored by Mission 21.

2 Page 2 of 38 Acknowledgement The authors wish to express their gratitude and appreciation to Rev. Jochen Kirsch of Mission 21 for his tremendous support and guidance throughout the assignment. Our gratitude also goes to TEE Deputy Director Kanadi Dauda Gava (Mrs), Markus Gamache, TEE staff, and the TEE course participants that that took part in the survey.

3 Page 3 of 38 Table of Contents Acknowledgement... 2 List of Acronyms... 5 EXECUTIVE SUMMARY INTRODUCTION Background and Rationale for the Baseline Survey Objectives of the baseline survey METHODOLOGY Research Instruments Desk Review Focus Group Discussions (FGDs) Interview with TEE Officials and Supervisors Challenges and Limitations BRIEF DESK REVIEW OF ENVIRONMENTAL ISSUES AND CLIMATE CHANGE IN NIGERIA: FINDING BASELINE/FIELD SURVEY RESULTS Historical Background of Environment degradation and Climate The Environment in the 1960s Changes in the Environment from the 1970s Consequences of the Changes in the Environment Livelihood Practices and Energy Sources Current Farming Methods and Technologies Current Fuel and Energy Sources Water Sources for Domestic and Agricultural Uses Modes of Transportation Livestock Rearing... 23

4 Page 4 of Gender, Environmental Degradation and Climate change Communities Response to Environmental Degradation and Climate Change Current Adaptation Strategies Current Mitigation and Coping Strategies Knowledge and Perception of Climate Change among TEE Students Sources of Knowledge on the Environment and Climate Change Status of the Earth: Living or Non-Living? Can Human Activities Harm the Earth? Religious Belief and Environmental Perception CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS Conclusion Recommendations Endnotes Annex.37

5 Page 5 of 38 List of Acronyms CC DCC EYN FGD GHG Climate Change District Church Council Ekklesiyar Yan uwa a Nigeria Focus Group Discussion Greenhouse gas ICBDP Integrated Community-Based Development Programme IEC IPCC Information, Education and Communication Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change MDAs Ministries, Departments and Agencies TEE Theological Education by Extension

6 Page 6 of 38 EXECUTIVE SUMMARY The Theological Education by Extension (TEE) of the Ekklesiyar Yan uwa a Nigeria (EYN Church of the Brethren), with the support of Mission 21 of Switzerland, has developed and introduced an environmental sustainability and climate change programme aimed at increasing local communities resilience to the impact of environmental degradation and climate change and enhancing their adaptation and mitigation capacities. The programme involves the implementation of a curriculum on environmental and climate change education and related sustainability projects among TEE course participants in the northern region of Nigeria. The northern region is a geographical area grappling with desertification and other phenomena of environmental degradation as well as trends that may be attributed to the impact of climate change. This baseline study was carried among a cohort of TEE course participants before they were exposed to the curriculum. The purpose of this baseline survey was to identify the common environmental issues in the programme beneficiaries communities and to gauge their initial knowledge and attitudes towards the environment and climate change. The following questions guided the survey: What changes have the people observed in their environment from the time they were growing up and now? What are the common knowledge and understandings about the environment? What beliefs and values inspire or influence such knowledge and understandings? What are the sources of knowledge about the environment? What do the people know about climate change? What are the people s coping, adaptation and mitigation strategies? How relevant and timely is the TEE environmental sustainability and climate change programme to the need of the communities? This baseline study drew on various primary and secondary data sources. The study began with an extensive review of TEE documents, official publications and other relevant

7 Page 7 of 38 literature on environmental issues and climate change with focus on Nigeria. A fieldwork was undertaken by the researchers. Interviews and Focus Group Discussions (FGDs) were carried out with TEE course participants that had not been exposed to the TEE curriculum and programme on environmental sustainability and climate change at the time of the fieldwork, and with coordinators and officials of the TEE in Mubi (in Adamawa state) and Uba (in Borno state). Qualitative data collated during the fieldwork and desk review formed the basis of analysis and conclusions of the baseline study. The findings of the study are summarized in the following conclusions: 1. There is enough reason to conclude that environmental degradation is the most serious development challenge of the communities that constitute the immediate catchment areas of TEE. 2. Desertification is expanding in a progressive fashion and gradually robbing communities of arable lands. 3. The environmental impact of climate change and variability are adversely experienced in the areas. 4. Water scarcity has reached an acute level and there is no any sustainable solution at sight. 5. The inhabitants livelihoods are increasingly threatened by environmental degradation because they depend mainly on rain-fed agriculture and other means of survival that are based on the exploitation of environmental resources. 6. Deforestation driven by sole dependence on wood fuel (by rural and urban dwellers), bush burning, and the indiscriminate felling of trees for various uses is a major aggravating factor of desertification. 7. The applications of chemical fertilizers and herbicides, which are short term solutions to the decline in soil fertility and pest infestations respectively, have reached worrisome levels.

8 Page 8 of The impact of environmental degradation and climate change affect everyone in the communities, but for women to even a greater because of their traditional gender roles. 9. The understanding of and attitudes towards environmental issues and climate change demonstrated by the new entrants of TEE who took part in the survey were largely uninformed and incoherent. 10. Narrow understanding of the scriptures led to fatalistic conclusions that encourage passivity rather than action to contribute to environmental sustainability. 11. The TEE introduction of the TEE programme on environmental sustainability and climate change is timely. Based on the above conclusions the following recommendations are made: 1. There is need for inter-agency collaboration between the TEE and other community development departments of the church so that needs that have been identified could be followed up by the respective agency with a mandate to address them. For example, the ICBDP, the developing coordinating arm of the church, could bring its resources to assist communities with well digging and provide tree seedlings to farmers. 2. More participation of women in the TEE programme should be encouraged. 3. Information, Education and Communication (IEC) materials on environmental issues and climate change should be massively produced by the TEE and circulated in the churches and communities. 4. Efforts should be made to harness the sustainable livelihood opportunities that climate change presents. For example, many TEE students carry their books in plastic bags, and so someone could produce and sell bags from recycled materials. 5. It would be highly helpful to communities if training on compost making and the use of biological fertilizers are made part of the TEE environmental sustainability and

9 Page 9 of 38 climate change course. This would greatly promote sustainable agricultural practice among the course participants. 6. A linkage should be established between the TEE programme and relevant government agencies such as the Adult Literacy and the Agro-forestry department. This may create opportunity for resource exchange. For example, the Agro-forestry department could provide variety of improved seeds and seedlings to the TEE. 7. Mission 21 has been instrumental in the initiation and integration of the environmental sustainability and climate change programme into TEE. There is a need for Mission 21 to continue to support the programme by facilitating the exchange of knowledge and know-how from Switzerland to the programme. To this end, there is still a need for an ecumenical co-worker to fill the position of a consultant. 8. Lastly, more funding needs to be allocated to TEE to strengthen the environment and climate change programme.

10 Page 10 of INTRODUCTION 1.1 Background and Rationale for the Baseline Survey The Ekklesiyar Yan uwa a Nigeria (EYN Church of the Brethren in Nigeria) was established in 1923 in northeastern Nigeria. The administrative headquarter, which coordinates its branches spread across the country, is located in Adamawa State. As a church denomination, EYN has since its founding sustained the commitment of being both a rural church and a peace church. Despite having branches spread all over the country, the church is still headquartered in a rural location, and most operational field offices are in rural areas. The majority of the church s rural dwelling members live predominantly in the northeastern part of the country, a geographical region that is grappling with desertification and the environmental impact of climate change. In order to contribute to the resilience of local communities to the challenges engendered by environmental degradation and the environmental impact of climate change as well as to increase their capacities for adaptation and mitigation, the Theological Education by Extension (TEE) arm of EYN, with the support of Mission 21 of Switzerland, introduced a programme on environmental sustainability and climate change. The programme was designed to improve the resilience and capacities of local communities to protect the environment and to better adapt and mitigate the environmental impact of climate change through imparting knowledge of environmental sustainability and climate change, inculcating environmental ethics and sustainable lifestyles, and building practical skills among its adult students, who are church, community and youth leaders. Using its time tested model, the TEE developed and introduced a curriculum on environmental sustainability and climate change to help students through a programmed instruction to gain knowledge and practical lessons. Given the strategic positions that TEE students occupy in their congregations and communities, they serve as change agents who would multiply the benefits of the lessons to the larger society.

11 Page 11 of Objectives of the baseline survey The purpose of this baseline survey was to identify the common environmental issues in the programme beneficiaries communities and to gauge their initial knowledge and attitudes towards the environment and climate change. The following questions guided the survey: What changes have the people observed in their environment from the time they were growing up and now? What are the common knowledge and understandings about the environment? What beliefs and values inspire or influence such knowledge and understandings? What are the sources of knowledge about the environment? What do the people know about climate change? How relevant and timely is the TEE environmental sustainability and climate change programme to the need of the communities? 2. METHODOLOGY The resources used to write this report were drawn from desk review, Focus Group Discussions (FGDs), and interviews. The baseline survey took place in Mubi (Adamawa State) and Uba (Borno State) with participants from several local government areas and districts, who are TEE course participants, coordinators and officials. Qualitative data collated during the fieldwork and desk review formed the basis of analysis and conclusions of the study. 2.1 Research Instruments Desk Review The desk review involved a brief survey of basic literature generic to the study. In particular, the researchers reviewed literature relating to climate change and environmental issues globally and in Nigeria. Documentary resources from various MDAs were searched and studied in order to have country specific information regarding climate change and environmental issues.

12 Page 12 of Focus Group Discussions (FGDs) FGDs with TEE students were held at EYN church Askira UBa (Borno State) and at EYN Mubi (Adamawa State). Prior to the interviews, the team carried out preliminary activities. First, the team met and drew up open-ended questions as guide. Second, the informants, who were students, were divided into two groups. The first group consisted of TEE students, who were yet to be exposed to the TEE curriculum on environmental sustainability and climate change. The second group was that of the TEE supervisors and seminar leaders from various District Church Councils (DCCs). Prior to the FGDs the consent of informants to be recorded was first obtained. During the FGDs, electronic recording devices were used, while at the same time notes were taken long hand. The FGDs were in-depth and lasted for between 4 to 5 hours Interview with TEE Officials and Supervisors The researchers conducted separate interviews with TEE head office officials and supervisors and seminar leaders. The interviews with supervisors and seminar leaders were conducted at Uba and Mubi as parallel sessions to the FGDs with students. The officials were interviewed at the head office of the TEE in Mubi. 2.2 Challenges and Limitations The FGDs with the students were conducted in the Hausa language. One of the main challenges was translating terms like climate change and the environment from English to Hausa. However, without being translated to Hausa, the students had heard of and knew about climate change and were able to speak to the subject. The second challenge was the often large numbers of students in one group (between 10 and 15). It was therefore not possible to ask everyone to individually respond to each question. We overcame this challenge by asking the group after two or three persons had given answers that were similar if anyone had a different experience, or explanation. Where this response was positive, we took the new and different experience or explanation (s) in details as was the case with those that were similar.

13 Page 13 of BRIEF DESK REVIEW OF ENVIRONMENTAL ISSUES AND CLIMATE CHANGE IN NIGERIA: Nigeria has a population of over 167 million, 1 making it the most populous country in Africa. The country lies in the Western part of Africa. It shares borders with the republic of Benin, Cameroon, Chad and Niger. The country has a total area of 923,768km 2, with land making up 910,768km 2 of that and water taking up the remaining 13,000km 2. 2 Nigeria s National Policy on Environment acknowledges that the country s geographical location as well as shape and size make it to have all the different climatic conditions of the West African sub-region. 3 The climate of Nigeria varies from equatorial in south, tropical in the centre and arid in the north. 4 Although Nigeria is richly endowed with natural resources, indications of condition and trends of the natural environment, especially the status of the land and coastal resources base, reflect extensive and progressive deterioration, particularly within the last three decades. 5 The environmental issues that the country is facing include: soil degradation; rapid deforestation; urban air and water pollution; desertification; endangered species; hazardous wastes; serious damage from oil spills; loss of arable land; and urbanization. 6 Nigeria s National Policy on Environment identifies climate change as the greatest environmental challenge facing the world today. This statement clearly underscores the recognition that climate change is a global phenomenon. Since the publication of the report of IPCC in 2007, it became very obvious that Sub-Saharan Africa cannot afford to ignore the issue of climate change because the region was identified as the most vulnerable and having the least capacity to adapt to the impact of climate change. 7 One expert on climate change in Nigeria, Ayobami T. Salami, said the country has to be concerned about climate change for the following reasons: rainfall patterns have become increasingly unpredictable in recent years; IPCC s (2007) prediction that global warming will be more intense in Africa than other parts of the world; the sub-region of West Africa has witnessed a phenomenal drop (20-40%) in annual precipitation between ; and the scary global prediction of sea level rise of about 18-59cm by Salami argues that the evidence of climate is obvious in many parts of the country. Such evidence includes changes in: Intensity and seasonal nature of the rains; elevation of average annual temperatures; and increased frequency of widespread, high impact weather phenomena including drought and flooding. 9

14 Page 14 of 38 Figure 1: Map of Nigeria Source: United Nations Cartographic Section Salami observes that the increasing vulnerability of the people of Nigeria to climate change is due to the fact that: majority of people are living and working in climate change-prone areas of the country; over 60% of the nation s industries are in coastal areas; and people s livelihoods are at risk because the productive infrastructure such as land and crops are threatened. Other observations made by Salami are the country s land-based vulnerability to the environmental impact of climate change such as desert encroachment and threatened coastline, economic vulnerability of Nigeria due to its overdependence on fossil fuel revenues, and the fact that the livelihoods of the majority of the people are tied to climate-sensitive activities.

15 Page 15 of 38 Figure 2: Nigeria's triple vulnerabilities, based on the ideas of Ayobami T. Salami (2010) The geographical area, where the TEE environmental sustainability and climate change programme operates lies mainly in the semi-arid zone of Nigeria. It is a region that has consistently and adversely been affected by all recorded droughts in the country s recent history. 10 This situation is said to be exacerbated by human population growth and activities such as over-grazing, over-cultivation, and deforestation, which harshly stress the natural balance of the ecosystem, and, as a result, in many areas of the region, the sustainable-yield threshold of the vegetation have been breached. 11 Desertification is one of the greatest pressing environmental problems of the dry lands regions of Nigeria. 12 The evidence of this is the progressive conversion of areas of vegetation to desert-like sand. Northern states of Bauchi, Borno, Gombe, Jigawa, Kano, Katsina, Kebbi Sokoto, Yobe and zamfara are the frontline states seriously affected by desertification. 13 Other northern states including Plateau, Adamawa (where the TEE head office is located), Taraba, Niger, Kwara, Kaduna, and the Federal Capital Territory, which are referred to as buffer states, are at the receiving end of desertificationinduced human and livestock migration from the frontline states. It has been estimated that between 5-10% of the land area of these buffer states are already threatened by desertification. 14 Consequently, the dry lands have become susceptible to economic and social conflicts, arising from rapid population increase and competition among various land users like farmers and herders. 15 Given the fragile scenarios above, it is urgently imperative to promote environmental degradation and climate change adaptation and mitigation in Nigeria. To achieve this, Salami,

16 Page 16 of 38 advocates the need for Public awareness programme on climate change and environmental issues, Environmental education programmes in schools, and Zero tolerance for unsustainable lifestyles. The Nigerian Conservation Foundation is also on the same page with Salami with regard to the need to engage in public awareness campaigns and other practical measures geared at reducing the impact of climate change. 16 The Nigeria s National Policy on Environment identifies education as central to the objective of creating public awareness and enlightening citizens on climate change and environmental issues. It also acknowledges that both formal and non-formal education should be considered as veritable instruments for the furtherance of this objective. The policy also strongly advocates the need for the kind of education that is transformational helping make people to imbibe environmental ethics and embrace sustainable lifestyles. The policy thus states: Education is a dynamic instrument of change. Appreciation of the need to protect the environment should be inculcated at all levels of both formal and non-formal education [authors emphasis]. Education promotes public awareness of attitudes, values and other actions that are germane to sustainable development, as a tool for encouraging popular participation in decision making. It is necessary to develop and support the education sector to ensure its responsiveness to changes and the demands of all other sectors. The result will be a direct as well as an indirect assimilation of environmental ethics into the value system, to evolve a community of people that collectively and individually accept responsibility for protecting the environment and ensuring rational utilisation of natural resources. 17 Both state and non-state actors have important roles to play in promoting public awareness on climate change and environmental issues whether through formal or non-formal education. There are even scholars who argue that civil society should be preoccupied with domestic efforts and take the lead in promoting sustainable lifestyles, and increasing public awareness and involvement into sustainable daily activities than devoting time and resources on seemingly unfruitful international climate change talks. 18 One of the weaknesses of the National Policy on Environment is the absence of a concrete framework for engaging civil society to play an active role in promoting public awareness on climate change. As Crispino Lobo notes, this is a problem with many developing countries national policies. Lobo argues that since all adaptation is local and civil society organisations are the closest to the situation on the ground they are most suited to fostering adaptive capacities of local communities. 19 Lobo s main argument is that although climate change is a global phenomenon, it is locally experienced,

17 Page 17 of 38 and therefore, it is imperative to engage local groups and institutions in addressing it. This assertion supports the relevance of the TEE environmental sustainability and climate change programme in terms of the role of the church as an active promoter of formal and non-formal education as well as being an institution that is part and parcel of the social fabric of the Nigerian society. 4. FINDING BASELINE/FIELD SURVEY RESULTS 4.1 Historical Background of Environment degradation and Climate Change This section explored the historical background of environmental degradation and climate change in the study area from the perspectives of the respondents. It examined the environmental changes that respondents observed from childhood to the present time The Environment in the 1960s 20 Respondents description of the environment in their various communities, up to the late 1960s, showed two types of environments forest and Savanna. The forest environments were Dambua, Uba, Boka, Michika, Maiwandu-Bishirwa, and Tampal-Pabuga. Gashala was the only one with savanna features. With respect to the forest environments or communities, respondents identified the major features such as: plant and animal life, as well as rivers and aquatic life. Plants, according to them were made up of thick forests huge and densely-populated trees and tall grasses such that one could not see the next house from their own compound. These forests were inhabited by human kind and various species of wild animals, as people and wild life competed for control of the environment. Some of the wild life species that inhabited the forests included hyenas which roamed the villages and strayed into people s compounds various kinds of birds (in the various communities), 21 and deers (in Tampal-Pabuga). While John Badum claims that he once encountered a deer while looking after sheep in the bush, as a young boy, 22 Hyellafiya adds that because of the threat posed by wild animals, small children were not left to walk around the community unescorted for fear that they might be attacked by hyenas. 23 Rivers and streams were identified by their names. In Dambua, for example, the major rivers/streams

18 Page 18 of 38 included the Yazargam which was a tributary of the Lake Chad and others like the Faganam, the Portihi, and the Nkirvu. 24 In Michika, the major rivers/streams included the Nku, the Nindiri, and the Zini. 25 Boka village had no large rivers but had streams. 26 In all the communities, the rivers/streams contained water all year round, as they also accommodated various species of large fish stocks. 27 The richness of the rivers and streams in fish species supported the Su annual fishing festival of Dambua people. In all the communities, the rivers and streams were also sources of water for the human and animal populations. The banks of the rivers and streams were swampy. Natural spring waters and ponds also existed in the community. 28 In Maiwandu- Birshishuwa, the swamps along river banks were cultivated and planted with sugar cane. 29 The only savanna-type vegetation, described by Sarah Ibrahim, was Gashala, where she was born in According to her account, Gashala community had no dense forests but had a few large trees and tall grasses. Like in the forested communities, there were rivers and streams in Gashala, which had water all year round and were fishing grounds. When she left the village in 1968 at the age of 18 years, all these natural features were present in the community Changes in the Environment from the 1970s Informants claimed that they begun to notice negative alterations in their environments from the 1970s and that since then, things have continued to worsen. These changes included deforestation, reduced water levels in rivers and streams, and lateness/irregularity of the rains. They add that well diggers find water levels much deeper down the soil and that people now use very long ropes to draw water from the wells. Thus, according to them, unlike the 1950s and 1960s, when the rains started falling in April and lasted till about November or sometimes in December; in the late 1970s, and particularly since the 1980s, the rains start in May. In some years, the rains may start in April but temporarily break in May, and return again in June. They add, however, that in both cases, the rains do not continue to fall until November as was the case in the 1960s and 1970s. Besides, all the major rivers and streams gradually dried up, as did the grasses. Furthermore, there are dusty winds, while low quantity/lack of dews became common features of the environment. In addition, due to erosion the soil became degraded. 31 Informants extended their observations about these changes with references to specific occurrences. Sarah Ibrahim, for instance, said these changes started in 1970s. According to her, when she visited her village in Gashala, she noticed that the trees were disappearing. Bulus

19 Page 19 of 38 Verwa identified the period as the beginning of environmental changes in his Maiwandu-Birshishuwa community. In those years he observed that deforestation and extensive cultivation of sugar cane was increasing, while the rivers were drying up. In Boka community, Maryamu Musa Zira claims that the changes begun community in 1983 through the 1990s. In those periods, she noticed the indication of climate change in the drying up of rivers resulting in scarcity of water. She buttresses this point by the claim that, when she visited her village in the 1980s (she had left the village for the town in 1971), she noticed that people had started selling water in cups unlike before. 32 Informants identified the following as causes of desertification and climate change: urbanization, population increase (which reduces the human-land ratio in the face continuous land bifurcation in households), intensive and extensive cultivation, which shortens the fallow period, as new technologies were introduced. The first new technology was the plough introduced by the CBM missionaries, led by Mr. Holt who initiated the practice of giving ploughs to converts, and second, the introduction of tractors in later years. Other causes of climate change, in the opinion of informants, include human kind s disobedience to God respecting care for other creatures, and the use of power generators (due to poor electricity supply), which cause air pollution. Further causes identified by them include tree cutting for various human uses: firewood; sale in the market; furniture and door-making (including doors for animal house); roofing rafters; and farm expansion. Felled trees were not replaced, as no new trees were planted. Other causes of desertification they identified included increased use of chemicals to kill grasses instead of weeding them; and hunting and killing of bush animals and various species of birds for meat. 33 The periods (1970s and 1980s) identified by informants as periods marking the beginning of significant environmental changes in the direction of desertification coheres with established facts. For instance, the Sahelian drought of 1973, which reoccurred in 1983, affected many sub- Saharan African countries including northern Nigeria to which our study area belongs. The point made by respondents that increased use of chemicals degrades the environment is supported by environmental historians. 34 Support for the informants claims comes from the Federal Government report on climate change. According to the Federal Government report, the droughts in 1973 and 1983 in the Sahelian zones of the country led to breakdown of biological processes,

20 Page 20 of 38 depleted water supplies, slow growth of trees and loss of livestock and crop production. 35 However, by identifying only human causes of climate change, the respondents seem to be unaware of the argument that natural disasters are also contributory factors Consequences of the Changes in the Environment Informants opinions were that climate change was a bad thing and that it resulted in many negative developments as follows: i. Desertification and pollution both of which jeopardize the good life for the future generations; ii. Farmers are increasingly vulnerable to the vicissitudes of the weather such as soil impoverishment and poor harvests. The result is livelihood uncertainties. 37 iii. Migrations by people from desert-threatened areas like Boka and Michika to other areas like Mubi, Yola, Hong, and Jos have occurred. 38 iv. Difficulty in accessing water and firewood, as women sleep around the streams/rivers to get water. 39 v. Increasing spate of land disputes and conflicts due to land shortage. 40 In effect, their opinions identify one broad effect of climate change namely, desertification, which they attribute to food crisis, shortage of water, migrations, and land conflicts in their communities. This broad category aligns with the federal government of Nigeria s report on climate change which states that: Desertification, which is affecting the 10 northern states is considered as the most pressing environmental problem and accounts for about 73% out of the estimated total cost of about US$5.110 billion per annum the country is losing arising from environmental degradation Livelihood Practices and Energy Sources Current Farming Methods and Technologies The farming implements used in the communities are simple and rudimentary. The most common tools are hoes, cutlasses and axes. Use of animals for plowing is also common among

21 Page 21 of 38 households that are better off. A few people are able to afford to hire the services of tractors. Respondents reported that nowadays they have to cultivate large portions of land in order to get adequate yield. There was a consensus that decline in soil fertility is evident from the increasing dependence of farmers on fertilizers. The low productivity of the soil was attributed to overcultivation due to population growth. Due to population increase it seems difficult to the farmers to practice shifting cultivation in order to allow lands to fallow and regain their fertility. Two disturbing trends were observed in the areas. One, the use of chemical fertilizer has become very rampant and potentially harmful to the quality of farm produce. The survey also discovered that the use of herbicides has become very widespread in the areas. Some of the reasons given for this include the desire of individual farmers to cultivate a large portion of farmland within an increasingly shortening rainy season, the growing availability and popularity of herbicides as more convenient than the labour intensive traditional weeding, and herbicides and pesticides are considered more necessary now due to the appearance of more aggressive weeds and pests in recent years. Apart from their negative effects on food quality, farm chemicals are also associated with certain health risks. These chemicals are serious sources of water contamination. Many communities depend on streams and open or poorly constructed wells that may easily be contaminated Current Fuel and Energy Sources The communities rely mainly on wood fuel for domestic uses. This has been driving deforestation and aggravating environmental degradation. Respondents were unanimous in pointing out that the average distance to a bush where one can get firewood has increased to about 4km. This means the communities have to walk long distances in search of firewood. Apart from a handful of shed trees in the villages and a few cash trees on farms, there are hardly any wood trees near the communities. Also as farm yields have declined over the years amid increasing population, firewood selling has become a livelihood for many people. The demand for firewood from the big cities is noticeable as a major driver of this form of deforestation. In general, Nigeria as a whole has been experiencing electricity crisis for many years. So it was not surprising to learn that Uba and Mubi as well as the neighbouring local governments from where most of the TEE students come from were hardly enjoying few hours of power

22 Page 22 of 38 supply in a day. Rural electrification has not reached most rural communities in the areas. However, with the high degree of mobile phone penetration into most parts of the areas, the people depend on small fuel electricity generators to charge their phones. This has created business opportunity for some people who set up such commercial mobile phone charging centres. For lighting, majority of households depend on kerosene lanterns, makeshift lamps and flashlights Water Sources for Domestic and Agricultural Uses Domestic water sources in the areas include wells, streams and boreholes. Respondents complained that water scarcity is hitting their communities. Some of the water sources in their communities are drying up. New wells have to be dug deep or old ones have to be deepened almost every year because the water table keeps going down. Even boreholes dry up due to the depletion of the water table. Usually boreholes are sunk by government and after a few years they breakdown due to poor maintenance. Respondents said that the rainfall pattern in the areas has changed. Apart from the fact that the beginning and the end of the rainy season has become increasingly unpredictable, the rain may come as a heavy downpour causing flash floods and destruction. Despite the flooding more frequent flash floods experienced in the areas, during the dry season water becomes very scarce. Farmers in the areas depend mainly on rain. Few people do dry season farming by irrigation. While such dry season farming provides supply of fresh vegetables and fruits during dry season and serves as an invaluable income earner for households, it is increasingly threatened by water scarcity Modes of Transportation The common modes of transportation in the area include motorcycles, cars, bicycles and animal carts. Majority of people cannot afford private means of transportation. Women ride bicycles to the farm and markets. Even though bicycles are healthy and sustainable mobility, they are not favoured among the people because of what they describe as its low esteem. Cars are considered as status symbols, and a handful of people who own them are treated with respect.

23 Page 23 of 38 Thus, the choice of private transportation is informed mainly by affordability without considering whether it is environmental friendly Livestock Rearing Livestock keeping is an important part of the people s livelihoods. Most families keep domestic animals for economic purposes. The common livestock are chickens, goats, sheep, ducks, guinea fowls and cows. Cows are kept by families that are a little better off. When a need arises, such as paying children s school fees, payment of dowries, Christmas celebration, naming ceremonies, and treatment of the sick, the livestock is sold and the money is used for the purpose. According to the respondents, livestock keeping has become very challenging due to the increased disappearance of pasture and water scarcity. They also complained that clashes between Fulani herdsmen, who move about with large herds of cattle, and farmers are becoming more frequent these days. This claim agrees with Roger Blench s research results that show an increasing wave of farmer-grazer conflicts around the wetlands of northern Nigeria Gender, Environmental Degradation and Climate change No one is spared from the effects of environmental degradation and climate change in the communities. However, men, women, children, the elderly and the disabled are affected in different ways and have varying degrees of vulnerability. In order to have a gendered understanding of the effects, the survey involved an attempt to explore the different gender roles in the communities and made a conscious effort to include gender as a cross-cutting issue. Women appeared to be the most affected because of their gender roles. They are responsible for collecting firewood for the home, fetching water for domestic uses, and they are a major source of labour for subsistence farming (men tend to have more interest in cash crops). Women also are responsible for taking care of children. As a result of frequent episodes of heat wave and high temperature-related communicable diseases, children fall ill more commonly during hot periods.

24 Page 24 of Communities Response to Environmental Degradation and Climate Change Current Adaptation Strategies Fairly uniform adaptation strategies are adopted by communities. In Pella village of Hong LGA and in Wuduv village of Mubi LGA, for instance, the following adaptation strategies are used 43 : a. In respect of water shortage: Digging of boreholes and wells, as well as supply of pipeborne water are adopted in Pella to cope with the problem of water shortages. In Wuduv, however, the only one bore-hole dug dried up because it was fraudulently and poorly done. The government borehole contractor simply brought water in cans, and after reaching a shallow depth, poured the water from the cans into borehole and quickly fixed the pump, then pumped and water came out. But soon after the contractor left, water never came out and the only evidence of the borehole is the signboard, as the pump has been vandalized. The few wells dug in Wuduv village have two problems. First, their average depth is about feet. Second, they dry up during the dry season, as does the one stream Malkim. Between November/December and February, Wuduv villagers have to dig the sand to get water from the Malkim stream. Between March and May, the stream is completely empty of water just as the wells all dry up. Villagers have to go travel about two kilometers to another village Mujilam which has wetland (fadama) to get water on motorbikes and donkeys. Sale and purchase of water in the villages have become common. 44 This implies that water became a commodity in the village. This was not the case before the drying up of rivers and streams. b. In respect of cropping: planting of early maturity crop varieties or hybrids along with traditional savannah crops. The traditional crops in Pella include groundnuts, millet, guinea corn, bambara nuts, and maize. The hybrids include Kaura (early maturity guinea corn variety) and forty days maize. In Wuduv, the traditional crops are the savanna type crops such as maize, guinea corn, beans, groundnuts, millet, and an early maturity crop, jigari. 45 Innovations in the face of climate change include:

25 Page 25 of 38 i. Planting of soybeans. This was introduced about eleven years or so ago. 46 It is planted in about July and harvested about October as a source of milk and for income generation. ii. Hiring of wetland. People in Wuduv go to Mujilam and hire small portions of wetland (fadama) to cultivate rice as part of survival strategies, and for Christmas celebrations. c. To increase yield, farmers now increasingly use chemical fertilizers. While animal dung has almost been completely abandoned for chemical fertilizers in Pella, animal dung is still used in Wuduv but to a lesser extent, as chemical fertilizers dominate. d. Herbicides and pesticides are also used to clear farmlands of weeds and warms. An example of herbicides used in Wuduv is gramazol which farmers spray on their farms to kill weeds before cultivating the land. e. Major additional income source apart from sale of crops are: i. Sale of firewood/charcoal. Fuel woods are cut in the bush. While being used in the homes, firewood and charcoal are sold to people from the towns. In Wuduv, the firewood/charcoal deal between villagers and townspeople can take the form of exchange or cash transaction. The villagers exchange firewood/charcoal for water brought by people from the town. 47 ii. Planting of trees for their economic, cultural, and food values. In Pella, some of the species of trees planted include the nim Dogon yaro, tree. Nim tree leaves are sold as a local cure for malaria; planted on the farms, nim trees are boundary markers; planted in the homes, they provide shades; mangos are planted for their fruits, shade, and as wind breakers around the homes. In Wuduv, date palm trees are planted to demarcate farmland boundaries.

26 Page 26 of Current Mitigation and Coping Strategies Efforts to forestall the impact of CC have been very limited. The major effort in this respect is tree planting. While much of tree planting is driven by economic, cultural, and food requirements as noted above; a few are planted as windbreakers. In general, it appeared that communities in the area are not familiar with the worldwide appeal for people to adopt climate change mitigation measures. The communities were not familiar with measures recommended by the IPCC, which include changes in consumption patterns and lifestyles, conservation practices, adoption of environment friendly, low GHG emission technologies and energy sources like the use of bio-fuels, and town planning and management that promote less of GHG emitting transportation means Knowledge and Perception of Climate Change among TEE Students Sources of Knowledge on the Environment and Climate Change People in the project area have certain knowledge and beliefs about the environment, which they acquired from oral history, legends, the ideas passed onto them by their parents/elders and, to a lesser extent, from what some of them have learned in schools (for the few who have had formal education). The most common sources of knowledge, oral history, legends and learning from parents/elders, constitute the indigenous or traditional knowledge of the area. Although knowledge from these sources is not always consistent with science, we found some striking lessons. For example, the people rely on indigenous knowledge to forecast weather and climatic conditions. Some informants shared that their parents taught how to predict the onset of a good or unusual rainy season by observing the appearance or disappearance of certain plants or animals. Another example given by respondents was that from the nature of a Harmattan 49 season, they are able to predict if the following rainy season would be sufficient or short for crop requirements. With such knowledge, they are able to make the decision to plant more early maturing crops or those with lower rainfall requirement. Apparently, African Traditional Religion also played a part in the development of knowledge about the environment. In traditional religions, the environment is considered a central element of human existence. According to older informants, the environment is the physical link between gods, ancestors and people. Certain parts of the locations, like portions of

27 Page 27 of 38 the forest, mountain and stream, are regarded as sacred. People are forbidden from defiling such sacral spaces meant for worship or revered for the habitation of such places by spirits. Thus, African Traditional Religions were a source of knowledge to traditional communities on the environment. With the advent of Islam and Christianity in the area, many people abandoned traditional religions. According to the TEE students, being a Christian meant that one must break away from the belief and practices of traditional religions. Consequently, they consider the Bible as the ultimate source of knowledge. In the subject sections we would look at how their religious understanding shapes their perception and attitude toward the environment. We found that the communities indigenous knowledge about the environment did not include an awareness of climate change. It was not surprising that only nine among the respondents, who are yet to begin the course on environmental sustainability and climate change, had ever heard about climate change. Their sources of knowledge about climate change were radio, television, newspapers and school. They are also among the few that had had some formal education. When asked of what they think about climate change they gave the following surprising opinions that showed a lack of clear understanding of the concept: 50 - It is very bad. - It is something we are experiencing. - Things we saw in the past and the kind of yields we recorded in the past are no longer happening. We spend more on chemicals; we have more frequent insect infestations. People have changed now; people have no sympathy for each other. People do not get moved by deaths. Young people have no respect for elders. These are all climate change. - When we were young girls, we went to wedding parties, and there was no problem, but nowadays parents stop their children from going to parties because the parents are afraid such will lead young people to bad behaviours. This is also climate change. - Brings a lot of harm to us like desertification. No good food due to chemical; no good air. - Sudden change. - Fulfillment of the scriptures that at the end times certain changes will occur.

28 Page 28 of Status of the Earth: Living or Non-Living? In order to appraise the respondents understanding of the eco-system, the question of whether the earth is a living or non-living thing was posed to them. The consensus among the respondents was that the earth is a living thing because it sustains the lives of creatures. Two respondents had this buttress their points that the earth is a living thing: - The Bible says if you cannot worship God, He will cause rocks to worship Him. - Those who disobey Christ at the last day will run to mountain to seek refuge, but the mountain will say, I also need a place to hide, so they have life. From the sampled responses above, it was evident that they didn t have even a basic understanding of how the eco-system works Can Human Activities Harm the Earth? In order to gauge the respondents knowledge of anthropogenic impact on the environment, they were asked the question of whether human activities can harm the earth. There was consensus that human activities can harm the earth. Some of the ways human activities can harm the earth, according to the respondents include: felling trees or cutting their branches; killing wild animals; killing birds; bombing during war; chemical pollution in the air; and bush burning. Two respondents had this to say about environmental problems: Our sins make God to curse the earth to become barren. We offend God by complaining too much about volume of rain. This makes God to hold back the rain or give us heavy downpour at once to finish in a day. It is astounding that that all the students, including those who mentioned some of the human activities that have negative impact on the environment in the list above, agreed with the causal spirituality conveyed in the answer given by the last respondent accounting for rainfall variability Religious Belief and Environmental Perception This section of the baseline survey delves into the scriptural understandings of TEE students in relation to the environment before they take the course on environmental sustainability and climate change. First, the researchers began by inquiring into the students