The combination of a phosphate, sugar and a base forms a compound called a nucleotide.

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1 History Rosalin Franklin: Female scientist (x-ray crystallographer) who took the picture of DNA James Watson and Francis Crick: Solved the structure of DNA from information obtained by other scientist. The obtained the Nobel prize for their work. Maurice Wilkins: X-ray crystallographer friend of Watson and Crick help them solved the structure of DNA. Erin Chargaff: He found that the amount of Thymine equals the amount of Adenine and the amount of Guanine equals the amount of Cytosine NUCLEIC ACIDS (DNA and RNA) Nucleic acids are involved in the storage and transfer of genetic information in all living organisms. There are 2 types of nucleic acid in cells, Deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) and Ribonucleic acid (RNA). Nucleic acids are so named because DNA was 1st isolated from nuclei, but both DNA and RNA also occur in other parts of the cell, e.g. DNA is also found in mitochondria and chloroplasts, RNA is also found in the cytoplasm, particularly at the ribosomes. Both DNA and RNA are polymers, the monomeric units being called nucleotides. DNA and RNA are therefore polynucleotides. THERE ARE 5 DIFFERENT NITROGENOUS BASES: adenine (A), guanine (G), cytosine (C), thymine (T) and uracil (U). A, T, C and G are found in DNA. A, U, C and G are found in RNA (uracil replaces thymine here). The combination of a phosphate, sugar and a base forms a compound called a nucleotide. Structure of DNA 1 DNA is a double stranded molecule, which has a structure of a twisted ladder (double helix). 2. The two polynucleotide chains in a molecule of DNA are not identical but are complementary. The bases always pair up in a specific fashion; adenine always pairs with thymine, cytosine always pairs with guanine. Structure of RNA RNA is a single-stranded polynucleotide. There are three different types of RNA in the cells, each with a particular structure and function. 1.Messenger RNA (mrna) They are single-stranded and are made up of hundreds to several thousand nucleotides. mrna is made in the nucleus from coded instructions in the DNA and then passes into the cytoplasm where it is involved in the process of protein synthesis on the ribosomes. 2.Transfer RNA (trna) They are single strands of nucleotides wound up to form an overall "clover-leaf" shape. They interact with mrna during protein synthesis on the ribosomes. Two important features of the trna molecules are:

2 a) they possess an `anticodon' loop through which they can interact with molecules of mrna. b) at the opposite end of the molecule they possess an amino acid binding site. The amino acids carried by trna molecules eventually form the protein during protein synthesis. 3.Ribosomal RNA (rrna) This is made inside the nucleus within the nucleolus and is a major component of ribosomes. DNA REPLICATION A major requirement of genetic material is that it should be able to replicate so that its messages can be passed on from cell to cell as an organism develops and also from one generation to the next. It is also vital that during replication, identical copies of DNA are made so that the correct genetic messages are passed on. DNA replication takes place during interphase of the cell cycle, so that by the time nuclear division starts, two identical copies of each DNA molecule are already present for distribution into daughter cells. DNA Replication The protein (enzyme) Helicase unwinds (opens up) the double stranded DNA molecule. 2. The protein (enzyme) DNA Polymerase makes copies of the DNA strands 3. DNA a is replicated THE GENETIC CODE

3 DNA is the hereditary material responsible for all the characteristics of an organism and it controls all the activities of a cell. It is able to do this as it carries messages which control the synthesis of proteins. An important class of proteins is the enzymes which control chemical reactions within the cell, including the synthesis and breakdown of other classes of molecule. Therefore, by controlling which proteins are made at a particular time in a particular type of cell, DNA is able to control all the characteristics of a cell. Proteins are made up of amino acids. There are about 20 different types of amino acids commonly found in proteins.. DNA must therefore carry a coded message that determines not only the number and types of amino acids that appear in a polypeptide, but also their precise sequence in the chain. Each amino acid is in fact coded for by a sequence of 3 consecutive nucleotide bases in the DNA chain. Each triplet of bases is called a codon. The genetic code is usually represented in the form of RNA that would be complementary to the DNA in the gene. This is because it is messenger RNA that is directly involved in protein synthesis and not the genes (DNA) themselves.

4 The Genetic Code Each triplet of bases represents a sequence in mrna. Each sequence codes for the amino acid shown. 2nd base of codon U C A G UUU Phe UCU Ser UAU Tyr UGU Cys U UUC Phe UCC Ser UAC Tyr UGC Cys C U UUA Leu UCA Ser UAA Stop UGA Stop A UUG Leu UCG Ser UAG Stop UGG Try G CUU Leu CCU Pro CAU His CGU Arg U C CUC Leu CCC Pro CAC His CGC Arg C CUA Leu CCA Pro CAA Gln CGA Arg A CUG Leu CCG Pro CAG Gln CGG Arg G AUU Ile ACU Thr AAU Asn AGU Ser U A AUC Ile ACC Thr AAC Asn AGC Ser C AUA Ile ACA Thr AAA Lys AGA Arg A AUG Met ACG Thr AAG Lys AGG Arg G GUU Val GCU Ala GAU Asp GGU Gly U GUC Val GCC Ala GAC Asp GGC Gly C G GUA Val GCA Ala GAA Glu GGA Gly A GUG Val GCG Ala GAG Glu GGG Gly G AMINO ACIDS Phe = phenylalanine Ile = isoleucine Ser = serine Thr = threonine His = histidine Cys = cysteine Try = tryptophan Arg = arginine Gly = glycine Val = valine Leu = leucine Met = methionine (is also start sequence) Pro = proline Ala = alanine Tyr = tyrosine Gln = glutamine Asn = asparagine Lys = lysine Asp = aspartic acid Glu = glutamic acid PROTEIN SYNTHESIS Transcription This is the first stage in protein synthesis. The genetic information required for protein synthesis is contained in DNA which remains in the nucleus. Protein synthesis however, occurs at the ribosomes in the cytoplasm (rough endoplasmic reticulum). Therefore, a messenger molecule (mrna) is made, which carries the required genetic information from the nucleus to the ribosomes. The process by which mrna is made is called transcription.

5 Translation This is the process by which the genetic information in mrna directs the protein synthesis. This involves a species of RNA called transfer (t) RNA. Its function is to decode the message carried by mrna by correctly positioning amino acids into the growing polypeptide chain according to the sequence of nucleotides in mrna. Each trna molecule possesses two important features: 1 An anticodon site, which consists of a triplet of unpaired bases that is complementary to each codon sequence found on mrna. 3 A recognition site that enables the correct amino acid to bind to each trna molecule. E.g.. the codon UCU specifies the amino acid serine. Consider a sequence of mrna to be translated: A U G A A A C G G U U A mrna codons met lys arg leu amino acids for: *met = methionine (initiation) lys = lysine arg = arginine leu = leucine The role of nucleic acids in the storage and transfer of genetic information can be summarised as follows: transcription translation DNA RNA Proteins Protein Synthesis

6 What is a mutation? A mutation is any change in a cell s DNA What causes mutations? Mutations can be caused by mutagens- a physical or chemical cause of mutation. Examples: UV light, radiation, drugs. Mutages can also be carcinogens anything that causes cancer. Mutations can be natural: mutations occus in 1/100,00 DNA replications. Mutations do not have to be bad (evolution/adaptation) Types of mutations: Substitution, Insertion and Deletion Substitution A single nucleotide is altered. Can change one amino acid in a protein Milk Mile GGACAATCA proline -valine-serine GGACCATCA proline-glycine-serine Insertion An insertion occurs when a nucleotide is added to a gene Example: A nucleotide is inserted The fat cat ate the rat The faa tca tat eth era t GGACAATCA proline -valine-serine GCGACAATCA arginine-cysteine-stop Deletion -the extra nucleotide shifts all of the triplets that follow A deletion occurs when a nucleotide is removed from a gene. Example: A nucleotide is removed The fat cat ate the rat Thf atc ata tet her at GGACAATCA GGAAATCA proline -valine-serine proline-leucine

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