The Microfl o C w y t o meter V117tp.indd 1 2/24/10 3:49:05 PM

Transcription

1 The Microflow Cytometer

2 The MicroflowCytometer Frances S. Ligler Jason S. Kim Naval Research Laboratory, USA V117tp.indd 2 2/24/10 3:49:12 PM

3 Published by Pan Stanford Publishing Pte. Ltd. Penthouse Level, Suntec Tower 3 8 Temasek Boulevard Singapore editorial@panstanford.com Web: British Library Cataloguing-in-Publication Data A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library. THE MICROFLOW CYTOMETER Copyright 2010 by Pan Stanford Publishing Pte. Ltd. All rights reserved. This book, or parts thereof, may not be reproduced in any form or by any means, electronic or mechanical, including photocopying, recording or any information storage and retrieval system now known or to be invented, without written permission from the Publisher. For photocopying of material in this volume, please pay a copying fee through the Copyright Clearance Center, Inc., 222 Rosewood Drive, Danvers, MA 01923, USA. In this case permission to photocopy is not required from the publisher. ISBN (Hardcover) ISBN (ebook) Printed in Singapore.

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5 Preface While there are numerous current volumes and journal articles on applications of flow cytometry, we could find few recent compendia focused on advances in flow cytometers. Clearly, flow cytometers are becoming smaller and more geared toward special-purpose applications and less sophisticated operators. Yet as potential system developers, we had to scan the literature in microfluidics, optics, electronics, and nanotechnology to assemble information on the state-of-theart. The dissatisfaction and frustration resulting from our search for a digest of progress in flow cytometry produced the concept for this book. Our search for the leaders in each of the relevant sub-areas produced the selection of chapter authors who have kindly contributed their perspectives on the future challenges and opportunities for realization of microflow cytometers. For the scientists and engineers interested in the future of flow cytometers, the following chapters describe the continuing development of inexpensive, portable flow cytometers through incorporation of microfluidic technologies and small optical components. The underlying microscale theories essential for microflow cytometry are discussed, as well as advances that are representative of the current state-of-the-art. Innovative component technologies and integration of the components into functional prototype devices are reviewed with a goal of automated analysis and manipulation of particles and cells. Currently available commercial personal cytometers are examined to highlight both strengths and areas for necessary improvement. Chapters included are from prominent scientists and engineers, including Howard Shapiro a keystone in flow cytometry from the start of the technology, Michael Ladisch past chair of the Bioengineering Section of the US National Academy of Engineering, Wayne Roth and Colin Rich corporate leaders in industrial development and manufacture of benchtop flow cytometers, and John Dzenitis project leader for the BioWatch version 2 biosurveillance system. Other chapters by leading scientists focus on technical breakthroughs critical for nextgeneration systems. We hope you enjoy the compilation of the technologies that we think will spur future development, as well as the lessons learned from current developers of flow cytometry instrumentation. Perhaps you will discover a missing link after reading this book that will revolutionize future microflow cytometers. If that is the case, we wish you a satisfying and fruitful future in flow cytometry. With best regards to our readers. Jason Kim and Fran Ligler Naval Research Laboratory October 2009

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7 Contents Preface v 1. A History of Flow Cytometry and Sorting 1 H. Shapiro 1.1 Introduction Microscopy, Cells, and Cytometry in the 1600s! The 1800s Cell Theories, Staining, and Better Microscopy The Early Twentieth Century Ultramicroscopy and Einstein World War II to Vietnam Making Flow Cytometry Work Gucker s Counter for Bacteria Optical and Electronic Blood Cell Counters Approaches to Cell Heterogeneity: Pulse Height Analysis Pap Smears and Diff Counts: Scanning Approaches Kamentsky s Rapid Cell Spectrophotometer; Cell Sorting Flow Cytometry Meets Fluorescence and Goes Commercial Behemoth to Benchtop and Beyond: Thinking Inside the Box Microflow Cytometry A Personal Note Conclusions Analysis of Single Cells Using Lab-on-a-Chip Systems 25 H. Preckel 2.1 Introduction Instrument and Cell-Assay Chip Data Analysis Applications Conclusions Personal Flow Cytometers Luminex 37 W. D. Roth 3.1 Luminex, Cytometry, and Multi-Analyte Measurements Internal Dyes and Instrumentation Bead Classification Using Internal Dyes Reporter Response The Luminex 100 Flow Cytometer and xmap R Technology Optical Design

8 viii Contents Electrical and Algorithm Design Luminex 100 Fluidic Design Technology Enhancements Post Luminex Increasing Multiplex Capability Increasing Throughput Improving the Signal Viscosity Compensation Extending Dynamic Range Future Technologies for Multiplexed Analytes Static CCD Imaging of Beads Conclusions and Outlook The Accuri C6 Flow Cytometer R A Small Revolution 53 C. Rich and G. Howes 4.1 Introduction Design Goals Development Process User Personas Instrument Specifications Standardized Intensity Bead Set User Time Trials Major System Components Fluidics Optics Electronics Software Enhancing the Manufacturing Process Challenges to be Addressed The Future Progress in Capillary Flow Cytometry 69 D. King, A. Cappione, F. Ilkov, B. Goldman, R. Lefebvre, R. Pittaro and G. J. Dixon 5.1 Introduction Guava Capillary Cytometers Asymmetric Capillary Designs Particle Velocity Measurement Multisample Data Analysis Focusing Particles Without Sheath Flows in Microflow Cytometers 89 S. Choi, E. Um and J.-K. Park 6.1 Introduction: Why Focus Particles With or Without Sheath Flows?. 89

9 Contents ix 6.2 Microfluidic Techniques for Sheathless Particle Focusing Dielectrophoresis Acoustic Focusing Optical Focusing Hydrodynamic Focusing Challenges of Sheathless Focusing Methods Outlook for the Future Two-Dimensional Particle Focusing: Sheath Flow on Two Sides 105 J. Shin and M. Ladisch 7.1 Importance of Microfluidic Flow to Flow Cytometry Characteristics of 2D Microfluidic Hydrodynamic Focusing Review of Progress in Microfluidic Flow Methods Microfluidic Channels and Fabrication Critical Issues and Future Outlook Three-Dimensional Particle Focusing 117 P. B. Howell 8.1 Introduction Hydrodynamic Focusing Dielectrophoretic Focusing Hydrophoretic Focusing Other Means of Focusing Conclusions Fluidic Control: Pumps and Values 131 S. Zheng, K. Shaikh and J. Xie 9.1 Introduction: The Importance of Flow Control in Flow Cytometry Method of Pumping Displacement Micropumps Dynamic Micropumps Microvalves Micropumps and Microvalves in Microflow Cytometry Conclusion and Outlook Integrated Optics 147 Y. Hosseini and K. V. I. S. Kaler 10.1 Introduction Conventional Detection Systems in Microflow Cytometers On-Chip Integration of Optical Component On-chip Integration of Waveguides On-chip Integration of Optical Detectors

10 x Contents On-chip Integration of Light Sources On-chip Integration of Microlenses Conclusion and Summary The Potential of Polymer Photonics for Microflow Cytometry 159 D. Leuenberger and M. Ramuz 11.1 Importance of Polymer Photonics to Microflow Cytometry Current State of the Art of Microflow Cytometry Requirements on the Light Source Requirements on the Detection System Requirements on the Optical System Integration State-of-the-art Organic Photonics State-of-the-art Organic Light Source State-of-the-art Organic Detection System State-of-the-art Optical System Integration Using Organic Photonics Opportunities and Challenges for the Application of Organic Photonics in Microflow Cytometry Electrical Detection in Microfluidic Flow Cytometers 181 M. Di Berardino 12.1 Introduction Impedance Microflow Cytometry Principles of Measurement Chip Design Future Developments in Impedance-Based Microflow Cytometry Interfacing Microfluidics Data Acquisition and Analysis Applications Critical Issues Conclusions and Outlook Microflow Cytometer Electronics 201 J. S. Erickson, D. J. Kreft and M. D. Kniller 13.1 Importance of Electronics in Flow Cytometry Cytometer Electronics: Components, Functions, and Data Collection Electronic Components Evaluation Kits Peripheral Operations and Power Conditioning Electronics Design and Fabrication Notes Development of the NRL Autonomous Data Collection System.. 214

11 Contents xi NRL Version 1 System Future Outlook Miniaturized Sorters: Optical Micro Fluorescence Activated Cell Sorter 221 K. D. Patel and T. D. Perroud 14.1 Importance of Optical Cell Sorting to Microflow Cytometry Characteristics of Optical Cell Sorting Deflection of Flowing Cells by Optical Forces Active Sorting Using Optical Forces Operation of Optical µfacs Performance Metrics Comparison of Throughput, Recovery, and Purity for Different µfacs Sorting Strategies Cell Health and Viability Critical Issues New Concepts to Overcome Limitations in Optical µfacs Systems Outlook on the Future of Optical µfacs Conclusions Raman Spectroscopy: Label-Free Cell Analysis and Sorting 243 J. W. Chan 15.1 Novel Raman Markers for Microflow Cytometry Characteristics of a Raman-based Cytometer Review of Past and Current Developments Single Cell Raman Spectroscopy Laser Tweezers with Raman Spectroscopy Integration of LTRS with Microfluidic Systems Biomedical Applications of LTRS Coherent Anti-Stokes Raman Scattering (CARS) Spectroscopy Conclusions and Outlook The Autonomous Pathogen Detection System 263 J. M. Dzenitis and A. J. Makarewicz 16.1 Importance Characteristics of Pathogen Detection Systems Mission and Metrics System Engineering and Analysis Review of Progress Early Development

12 xii Contents Recent Development Critical Issues Problems to be Resolved Future Outlook for Progress Laser-Based Fabrication of Microflow Cytometers with Integrated Optical Waveguides 287 M. Dugan, A. A. Said, T. Haddock, P. Bado and Y. Bellouard 17.1 Flow Cytometer Miniaturization Microfabrication Approaches and Their Relevance to Microflow Cytometers Direct-write Fabrication Approach Development of the Direct-Write Fabrication Technique Prior Work Ablation FemtoWrite TM and FemtoEtch TM Application of the Direct-Write Approach to the Fabrication of Microflow Cytometers Fabricating Flow Channels with the Direct-Write Fabricating Optics with the Direct-Write Integrating Optical and Microfluidic Systems Addressing the Present Limitations of the Direct-Write Limited Index of Refraction Optical Surface Quality Bonding Optical Contact Bonding Thermal Bonding Manufacturing Cost Future Development Related to the Direct-Write Approach and Their Impact on the Fabrication of Microflow Cytometers Micromechanical Elements Novel Integrated Optical Capabilities Additional Capabilities Related Manufacturing Processes Conclusion and Outlook Systems Integration 311 J. S. Kim, J. P. Golden and F. S. Ligler 18.1 The Importance of Systems Integration to Microflow Cytometry Optical Components for Integrated Microflow Cytometers Waveguides Lenses Filters Light Sources

13 Contents xiii Detectors Pumps and Valves Sample Processing Sample Pre-Processing Sample Post-Processing Conclusions Color Index 335 Index 369

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