Literature Review and Best Practice Guidelines for the Life Cycle of PVC Building Products

Transcription

1 Literature Review and Best Practice Guidelines fr the Life Cycle f PVC Building Prducts

2 TABLE OF CONTENTS 1.0 FOREWORD PRODUCTION AND USE OF PVC AN OVERVIEW USES OF PVC IN THE BUILT ENVIRONMENT PVC PRODUCTION AND END OF LIFE MANAGEMENT LITERATURE REVIEW CHLORINE MANUFACTURE VINYL CHLORIDE MONOMER AND ETHYLENE DICHLORIDE DIOXIN EMISSIONS AND PVC PRODUCTION ADDITIVES LEAD CADMIUM TIN AND PHTHALATES ACCIDENTAL BUILDING FIRES END OF LIFE PRODUCT RECYCLING ADDITIVES IN LANDFILL WASTE FIRES SUMMARIES OF PVC LIFE CYCLE ASSESSMENTS USGBC TSAC TSAC ADAPTION BY BRANZ EUROPEAN COMMISSION PVC LIFE CYCLE ASSESSMENT CONCLUSIONS OVERVIEW OF PVC INDUSTRY ACTION BEST PRACTICE GUIDELINES FOR PVC IN THE BUILT ENVIRONMENT MANUFACTURE OF PVC RESIN MANUFACTURE AND END OF LIFE MANAGEMENT OF PVC PRODUCTS GENERAL RECOMMENDATIONS REFERENCES PAGE 2 f 33

3 1.0 Frewrd The GBCA has undertaken a review f histrical and current criticisms f the Plyvinyl Chlride (PVC) industry. These criticisms have been raised in the public dmain by stakehlders, including Envirnmental Nn-Gvernment Organisatins (ENGOs), wh are cncerned abut the ptential risks and impacts assciated with the PVC life cycle. A review f independent scientific literature was simultaneusly cnducted t imprve the GBCA s understanding f the science behind the envirnmental impacts, human health risks and current practices assciated with the life cycle f PVC. The findings f these tw reviews are presented in this reprt. Each cncern is utlined, the infrmatin frm the scientific literature which relates t this cncern is summarised, and then cnclusins n hw the cncern might be addressed are prvided. Further infrmatin relevant t this wrk is given in the fllwing frmat: General verview f PVC prductin; Uses f PVC in the built envirnment; Review f Life Cycle Assessments (LCAs) related t PVC and cmmn functinal use alternatives in building applicatins; PVC industry actins related t cncerns ver PVC and its envirnmental r health impacts. 2.0 Prductin and Use f PVC An Overview PVC is a synthetic slid resin material (a plastic) als cmmnly referred t as 'vinyl'. PVC is frmed frm vinyl chlride mnmer (VCM) (in pressurised liquid frm) in a manufacturing prcess that plymerises VCM int slid pwder r granule (CA EPA, 2006). The first stage in the prductin f PVC is t make ethylene dichlride (EDC). Chlrine is extracted via electrlysis frm brine (usually frm sea water). Ethylene is derived frm hydrcarbn raw materials. Chlrine and ethylene are reacted in the presence f xygen t frm EDC. The EDC is then decmpsed thrugh a thermal cracking prcess resulting in VCM and hydrgen chlride (HCl). The HCl is further reacted with ethylene and xygen t prduce mre EDC and water (AV, 2009). The next step in making PVC invlves batch reactr prcesses where VCM is plymerised with itself r cplymerised with varying amunts f vinyl acetate, ethylene, prpylene, vinylidene chlride, r acrylates. The plymerisatin prcess can be undertaken in a number PAGE 3 f 33

4 f ways (e.g. suspensin, emulsin, bulk, and slutin). The result f the plymerisatin prcess is PVC resin. As with mst plastics prducts, PVC prducts cntain additives. Lubricants and stabilisers are the tw mst cmmn types f additives in PVC. Lubricants aid in the prcessing f PVC. Stabilisers prlng the life f PVC prducts by reducing the degrading effects f heat and ultravilet (UV) light which wuld therwise cause chlrine t be lst frm the PVC in the frm f HCl gas. The presence f these additives (mixed in varying amunts) results in a wide range f prducts (CA EPA, 2006). Plasticisers are anther type f cmmn additive which give increased flexibility. The single largest grup f plasticisers used in manufacturing PVC prducts is a class f cmpunds called phthalates (EC 2000). PVC prducts which have plasticisers incrprated are characterised as flexible PVC, whilst thse with n plasticisers are called rigid PVC. Flexible PVC is mainly used in cables, flring, cated fabrics and car parts. The main applicatins f rigid PVC include pipes, prfiles, sheets and bttles (Scheirs, 2003). 3.0 Uses f PVC in the Built Envirnment In Australia, ver 75% f all PVC prducts are used in the built envirnment, primarily in base building applicatins (Scheirs, 2003). Image 1 belw prvides an illustratin f the majr uses f PVC in the Australian built envirnment. It cnfirms cnduit, pipes and fittings as the dminant use f PVC in building prduct applicatins. Flring is the secnd majr use f PVC in building/fitut prducts. Cable and wire insulatin are shwn as the third mst cmmn use f PVC, fllwed by PVC windws and drs (which are classified under the heading rigid prfiles) as a small percentage. Image 1 als summarises data n the prductin surces f the apprximate 238,569 tnnes f PVC prduced per year in Australia, fr the listed prduct applicatins. The majrity f the PVC used in each f these prduct applicatins is prduced dmestically with the exceptins f flring, windws and drs which are the primary applicatins cntaining imprted PVC. PAGE 4 f 33

5 Prductin Surce Imprt Dmestic Image 1 Majr PVC Prduct Applicatins and Prductin Surces fr the Australian Built Envirnment (extracted frm market data prvided by Vinyl Cuncil f Australia 2009) 4.0 PVC Prductin and End f Life Management Literature Review This sectin prvides an verview f health and envirnmental cncerns that have been viced by stakehlders (bth t the GBCA and in general public discussin) relating t PVC prductin and end f life prduct management. These cncerns relate t the fllwing stages f the PVC life cycle: Chlrine Manufacture Vinyl Chlride Mnmer and Ethylene Dichlride Dixin Emissins during PVC Prductin Additives Health Cncerns Lead, Cadmium, Tin and Phthalates Gases Created in an Accidental Building Fire End f Life Prduct Recycling Leaching f Additives in Landfill Emissins frm Waste Fires Each f these aspects is addressed in three parts: PAGE 5 f 33

6 Cncern Describes the life cycle health and/r envirnmental impact f cncern as viced by stakehlders. Literature Review Prvides a summary f literature reviewed as part f the PVC credit review prcess, as related t each cncern. Cnclusins Draws cnclusins and/r recmmendatins (where recmmendatins are warranted) n whether the cncern needs t be addressed in Green Star. 4.1 CHLORINE MANUFACTURE Cncern Mercury emissins arising frm chlrine prductin are a surce f glbal mercury pllutin. Mercury is implicated in many health cncerns. Literature review: The PVC prductin prcess is the wrld s largest single user f chlrine, cnsuming apprximately 35% f chlrine prduced wrldwide (IARC, 2008, WCC, 2006). Average PVC resin cnsists f 57% chlrine (Scheirs, 2003). Chlrine is prduced thrugh electrlysis f saturated brine (salt water). There are three basic prcesses fr the electrlytic prductin f chlrine. These are the diaphragm cell prcess (develped in 1885), the mercury cell prcess (develped in 1892), and the membrane cell prcess (develped in 1970) (EU, 2001). The pllutin utput related t the chlrine manufacturing prcess that is f mst cncern is mercury pllutin t air, sil and water (EU, 2001). Mercury pllutin is implicated in many health hazards. Inrganic mercury can be metablised by anaerbic bacteria t frm highly txic methyl mercury, which is an rganic frm f mercury that biaccumulates in the fd chain (EU, 2001). Wrld chlrine prductin is predminantly being cnverted t the use f the membrane cell prcess. Accrding t the Eurpean Cmmissin (EC, 2001) the best available technlgy fr the manufacture f chlrine is membrane cell and nn-asbests diaphragm technlgy. The membrane cell prcess has inherent advantages ver bth lder prcesses, as it des nt use mercury r asbests, and it is the mst energy efficient (EC, 2001). The Wrld Chlrine Cuncil (WCC), representing chlr-alkali manufacturers and related industries in 27 cuntries, has cmmitted t the applicatin f best available technlgies in the industry in rder t minimise mercury emissins frm this surce. Members f WCC have als cmmitted t the safe dispsal f mercury frm decmmissined plants and have impsed a ban n sale r transfer f mercury cells t a third party fr re-use. Existing mercury cell chlr-alkali manufacturing plants will be prgressively decmmissined and measures t reduce emissins frm thse still perating have been implemented (WCC, 2006). PAGE 6 f 33

7 In 2006 mercury emissins frm chlrine manufacture accunted fr less than 1% f ttal glbal emissins f mercury(natural and human induced emissins cmbined) (WCC, 2006). Mre significant surces f mercury emissins are vlcan eruptins, cal fired pwer statins and crematria. The UN Envirnment Prgramme's (UNEP) Gverning Cuncil meeting in Nairbi in February 2009 agreed t a glbal treaty t tackle mercury emissins. This treaty will be enfrced by 2013 (UNEP, 2009). Cnclusins While PVC manufacture is a majr glbal user f chlrine, the cntributin t glbal mercury emissins frm chlrine manufacturing plants is small. Mercury emissins frm this surce are set t be further reduced due t the glbal prcess f decmmissining f existing mercury cell prductin plants. Mercury emissins are therefre mstly a histrical cncern attributed t PVC. Surcing chlrine frm membrane cell plants represents best available practice as this eliminates ptential mercury emissins in the life cycle f PVC prducts. Nn asbests diaphragm cell prductin is als preferable t mercury based prductin prcesses. The membrane cell prcess is the least energy intensive f the three chlr-alkali prcesses. 4.2 VINYL CHLORIDE MONOMER AND ETHYLENE DICHLORIDE Cncern The txicity f the main cnstituents f PVC, as well as the resulting industrial waste, represents a human health risk. The acetylene-based VCM manufacture prcess is a surce f glbal mercury pllutin. Literature review Vinyl Chlride Mnmer (VCM) VCM is cmmnly prduced by the thermal cracking f ethylene dichlride. An alternative methd f VCM manufacture is the acetylene-based prcess, where acetylene is reacted with hydrgen chlride ver a mercury-based catalyst. Mst acetylene-based plants have been decmmissined; hwever, sme still remain active in China (IARC, 2008). VCM is nt manufactured in Australia but is imprted fr lcal PVC resin prductin. (DEWHA, 2009). VCM is a knwn human carcingen and a knwn human mutagen (IARC, 2008). In the 1970s a rare frm f cancer was discvered in PVC wrkers. This cancer, angisarcma f the liver, is caused by expsure t VCM, and ver 200 deaths have been recrded in frmer PVC wrkers. Since the 1970s the industry has implemented PAGE 7 f 33

8 majr changes (primarily a clsed lid prductin prcess), and since changes were implemented n PVC wrker has develped the disease (ECVM, 2009). In relatin t ccupatinal expsure t VCM the Eurpean Unin (EU) sets an ccupatinal expsure limit f 3ppm fr 8 hurs weighted average. Several EU Member States and cmpanies set lwer maximum levels, typically 1ppm. A 1ppm limit is als set fr VCM emissins frm final prducts (ECVM, 2009). The Australian Natinal Pllutin Inventry has established an 8 hur ccupatinal expsure limit t VCM f 5ppm (in air) (NPI, 2000). The fllwing cnversin factrs apply: 1ppm = mg/m³ 1 mg/m³ = 0.386ppm (Adapted frm WHO, 2000). The main surces f VCM emissins are industries that manufacture r use it (e.g. the chemicals and plastics industries). These emissins are primarily t the air, with a small percentage t water. Diffused surces f VCM emissins include treated wastewater that has been cntaminated with vinyl chlride r chlrinated hydrcarbns and emissins frm landfill. VCM is predminantly used in the manufacture f PVC (NPI, 2007). Rutes f human expsure t VCM arising frm PVC manufacture are (based n ptential t cause harm): Air cntaminatin frm VCM and PVC prductin plants. Fr example, general envirnmental levels f VCM frm all surces in Eurpe are likely t lead t average expsures f 2-10 μg/day. (WHO, 2000). Cntaminated fds and liquids frm PVC packaging. This was identified in the 1970s hwever has decreased substantially with the implementatin f mre stringent manufacturing specificatins fr PVC. It is estimated that the maximum intake per persn in fds and liquids wuld nw be less than 0.1 μg/day (WHO, 2000). Prvided that state-f-the-art prductin technlgies and management systems are emplyed, the envirnmental and health risks frm the prductin and use f VCM are lw (EC, 2004). Based n VCM emissin data frm Eurpean PVC manufacturing plants, the tp 25% f plants emit 18g f VCM per ne tnne f PVC prduced, the median emissin rate in the example f Eurpean PVC prductin plants is 43g/tnne. (EC, 2006) The Australian PVC industry Prduct Stewardship Prgram set a 50g/tnne VCM emissin benchmark fr lcal PVC manufacturing in This limit has been cnsistently met by the Australian PVC resin prducer. In 2009 this benchmark was reduced t 30g/tnne. (VCA, 2009) In EDC, VCM and PVC manufacturing facilities the greatest ccupatinal risk is the releases f txic gases, particularly when verheating situatins ccur (e.g. chlrine, ethylene, ethylene dichlride, hydrgen chlride, vinyl chlride mnmer and chlrinated by-prducts including dixins). During VCM feed stck prductin, factries perating in cmpliance with strict air quality management requirements can address PAGE 8 f 33

9 the ccupatinal risk invlved. Accidental releases f these gases frm such facilities d nevertheless ccur, and may impact sil, water and air (CA EPA, 2006). Mercury Mercury pllutin is a glbal health cncern (UNEP, 2008). The mercury catalyst VCM manufacturing prcess is a majr glbal user f mercury (UNEP, 2008). An estimated tnnes f mercury was cnsumed by the VCM manufacturing sectr in 2005, ut f a ttal f 3,000-3,9000 tnnes f mercury used glbally each year. China is the lcatin f the majrity f this prcess capacity (62 facilities in 2008). Russia als has a few plants using this prcess. It is believed that sme facilities in ther parts f the wrld als use the mercury prcess (UNEP, 2008). China's VCM prductin will cntinue t expand and the mercury catalyst prcess will be used t meet much f this demand. It is estimated that mercury demand fr this sectr in China may be 1,000 metric tnnes per year by 2010 (UNEP, 2008). The quality f the mercury-prduced VCM may limit its market range. As such, there may be ecnmic incentives fr switching t a nn-mercury prcess (UNEP, 2008). Ethylene Dichlride (EDC) EDC has been reprted in animal experiments t be carcingenic by ingestin, resulting in liver and kidney damage (WHO, 2008). EDC is classed as a pssible carcingen by the US EPA (US EPA, 2000), hwever this is nt supprted utside f the USA. EDC is nt classed as a carcingen by the WHO (WHO, 2008) r the Internatinal Agency fr Research n Cancer (IARC, 2009). EDC vapur can induce effects n the human nervus system, liver, and kidneys, as well as respiratry distress, cardiac arrhythmia, nausea, and vmiting. Lng-term (chrnic) inhalatin expsure has been fund t affect the liver and kidneys f animals. Decreased fertility and increased embry mrtality have been bserved in inhalatin studies f rats. Epidemilgical studies are nt cnclusive regarding the carcingenic effects f EDC (US EPA, 2000). The predminant use f EDC is in the manufacture f Vinyl Chlride fr the PVC industry as well as ther plastics (US EPA, 2000). In EDC, VCM and PVC manufacturing facilities the greatest ccupatinal risk is the release f txic gases, particularly when verheating situatins ccur (e.g. chlrine, ethylene, ethylene dichlride, hydrgen chlride, vinyl chlride mnmer and chlrinated by-prducts including dixins). During VCM feed stck prductin, factries perating in cmpliance with strict air quality management requirements can address the ccupatinal risk invlved. Accidental releases f these gases frm such facilities d nevertheless ccur, and may impact sil, water and air (CA EPA, 2006) PAGE 9 f 33

10 In EDC, VCM and PVC manufacturing facilities the greatest ccupatinal risk is the releases f txic gases, particularly when verheating situatins ccur (e.g. chlrine, ethylene, ethylene dichlride, hydrgen chlride, vinyl chlride mnmer and chlrinated by-prducts including dixins). During VCM feed stck prductin, factries perating in cmpliance with strict air quality management requirements can address the ccupatinal risk invlved. Accidental releases f these gases frm such facilities d nevertheless ccur, and may impact sil, water and air (CA EPA, 2006). PVC slid waste sludge can cntain rganhalgens, including dixins (EC, 2004). Dixins are a grup f persistent rganic pllutants (POPs). POPs are rganic cmpunds f natural r anthrpgenic rigin that resist phtlytic, chemical, and bilgical degradatin. Dixins can cause severe health effects at very lw expsure (EA, 2002). In Victria (the lcatin f Australia's nly PVC prductin plant) this industrial waste is classed under the Envirnmental Prtectin (Industrial Waste Resurces) Regulatins 2009, as class A; 'nt permitted in landfill'. Befre this regulatin came int place this waste was treated as hazardus waste in prescribed landfill under the Envirnment Prtectin (Prescribed Waste) Regulatins 1998, and the Industrial Waste Management Plicy (Prescribed Industrial Waste) (VIC EPA, 2009). High temperature emissin-cntrlled incineratin is an acceptable methd f treatment fr PVC sludge waste (EC, 2004). In Australia diversin f sludge waste t ther beneficial uses is preferred by the Envirnmental Prtectin (Industrial Waste Resurces) Regulatins 2009 (VIC EPA, 2009). An example f ne such use is as a supplement fuel in cement kilns. Waste water frm PVC manufacturing plant shuld be treated t eliminate txins (EC, 2006). The Eurpean Cmmissin cnsiders that where state-f-the-art prductin technlgies and management are emplyed, the envirnmental risks frm prductin f EDC, VCM and PVC are lw. Hwever, several nn state-f-the-art facilities d exist (e.g. Eastern Eurpe) (EC, 2004). State-f-the-art technlgy fr VCM/ EDC/PVC in the Eurpean cntext include: Waste: Slid waste and sludge can cntain rganhalgens, including dixins. Incineratin is therefre preferable t land filling. Water: Advanced wastewater treatment shuld prevent emissins f halgenated hydrcarbns like EDC and dixins in treated effluents. Residues frm thse treatments may underg further treatment t destry pssible captured cntaminants. Air: Prper emissin reductin measures are necessary t ensure that VCM and EDC emissins and ther cntaminants will be clse t, r belw, the negligible risk level. Prducts: Efficient stripping must ensure minimal VCM residue exists in the final plymer. (Adapted frm EC, 2004) PAGE 10 f 33

11 Cnclusins VCM: The health risks f VCM are significant and well dcumented. The VCM manufacturing industry has adpted clsed lid prcesses and highly mnitred manufacturing practices which have significantly reduced the amunt f VCM released. VCM prduced frm nn-mercury and nn-acetylene prcesses are preferred surces. Best practice ccupatinal expsure t VCM shuld nt exceed 1ppm (8h TWA). Cncentratin f VCM in PVC resin shuld nt exceed 1ppm. N safe expsure level f VCM has been cnclusively derived. Occupatinal expsure levels set by gvernments in Eurpe and Australia are the best indicatr f safe practice. Safe practice fr air and water emissins f VCM is less than 43g/tnne f PVC prduced. Levels f 18 g/tnne are achievable in sme prductin facilities in Eurpe. EDC The health risks f EDC are significant and well dcumented. VCM, EDC and PVC PVC sludge frm VCM, EDC and PVC manufacturing facilities shuld be treated by high temperature emissin-cntrlled incineratin r, where unavailable, anther gvernment-apprved hazardus waste treatment. Water effluent frm VCM, EDC and PVC manufacturing plants shuld be treated t eliminate txins. At VCM, EDC and PVC manufacturing facilities, mdern plants emplying best practice technlgies (e.g. clsed lid frmulatins as detailed by EC, 2004 in the Eurpean cntext) are the preferred surce f material fr best practice PVC prduct. PAGE 11 f 33

12 4.3 DIOXIN EMISSIONS AND PVC PRODUCTION Cncern The manufacture f PVC is a surce f dixin emissins. Dixin emissins are a majr health cncern. Literature Review: Dixins are a grup f persistent rganic pllutants (POPs). POPs are rganic cmpunds f natural r anthrpgenic rigin that resist phtlytic, chemical, and bilgical degradatin. Dixins bi-accumulate in animals fatty tissue. Dixins can als travel lng distances in the atmsphere and can reach remte areas well away frm the emissin surce. Dixins can cause severe health effects at very lw expsure (EA, 2002). The Stckhlm Cnventin fcuses n eliminating r reducing the releases f 12 POPs, the s called "Dirty Dzen"; amngst these 12 are dixins (UNIDO, 2009). Significant dixin frmatin can ccur in the chlrine prductin prcess if graphite andes are used (UNEP, 2003). Many industrialised cuntries replaced the graphite andes in the 1970s (UNEP, 2003). The mst significant surce f dixin emissin is uncntrlled cmbustin (i.e. bimass burning, waste burning and accidental fires). Uncntrlled cmbustin (e.g. bushfires) is estimated t cntribute t nearly 70% f ttal emissins t air and ver 80% f ttal emissins t land in Australia. Waste dispsal and land filling is estimated t be the largest surce f dixin emissins t water, cntributing ver 75% f ttal emissins in Australia (DEH, 2004). The prprtin f dixin emissins frm all chemical prcessing industries in Australia is belw 1% (this includes PVC). This figure des nt include the embdied dixin emissins assciated with PVC prduced in Australia, as VCM (and its precursr EDC) are imprted (DEH, 2004). In the UK, where EDC, VCM, and PVC are all dmestically manufactured, emissins fr all halgenated chemical manufacturing ttal 0.02g TEq (Txic Equivalent) annually. In cmparisn, emissins frm crematria in the UK ttal 1g TEq annually. Whilst nt all dixin types are equally txic. The TEq unit f measurement takes this int accunt t present an verall txicity measure (CSIRO, 2001). Cnclusins The level f dixins emitted due t best practice prductin f PVC and its cnstituents is much less than that frm ther surces. Therefre, there is insufficient ratinale fr discriminatin against PVC building prducts n the basis f dixin emissins. The use f best available technlgies fr EDC, VCM and PVC manufacturing described in sectin 4.2 ensures minimal risks. The use f nn-graphite andes in chlrine prductin represents best practice in relatin t minimising dixin emissin in the PVC lifecycle. PAGE 12 f 33

13 4.4 ADDITIVES LEAD CADMIUM TIN AND PHTHALATES Backgrund Additives t PVC predminantly cnsist f stabilisers and plasticisers. Table 2 presents PVC prducts f relevance t the credit review, and the current mst cmmn additives in these prducts in Australia. PVC Prduct Flring Stabilisers Plasticisers Histric Current Histric Current lead, calcium zinc calcium zinc, butyltin, epxidised sy bean il diethylhexyl phthalate (DEHP), benzyl butyl phthalate (BBP) Cable lead calcium zinc DEHP, DIDP, chlrinated paraffin Pipe/Cnduit Rigid Prfile lead, salts f fatty acids, calcium zinc lead, salts f barium and cadmium, calcium zinc, rganic stabilisers, rgantin calcium zinc, rganic-based stabilisers N/A diisdecyl phthalate (DIDP), diisnnyl phthalate (DINP) DIDP,DINP,Trictyl Trimellitate (TOTM) Table 2 Current and histric Stabilisers and Plasticisers in PVC prducts f interest in Australia, (data prvided by the Australian Vinyl Crpratin) Cncern Sme stabilisers used in PVC prducts are cnsidered txic and represent a health risk. Literature review (Stabilisers) Lead N/A N/A N/A Organic lead cmpunds are readily assimilated by living rganisms and are many times mre txic than inrganic lead salts. Stabilisers such as lead stearates are classified as inrganic lead cmpunds. (Scheirs, 2003). The percentage f lead in lead-stabilised PVC prducts is typically abut wt%.(scheirs, 2003). PAGE 13 f 33

14 Lead stabiliser replacement has gradually taken place in the PVC industry. Calcium/Zinc (Ca/Zn) stabilisers and rganic-based stabilisers which d nt cntain lead are the preferred alternatives. Australian pipe manufacturers phased ut lead in PVC ptable water pressure pipe applicatins as early as 1988 (Scheirs, 2003). Lead stabilisers are nt f cncern in the manufacture and in-use stage f PVC prduct life cycles, but are nly a cncern fr sme end f life aspects such as waste incineratin. (EU, 2004). Building and demlitin waste is nt incinerated in Australia s this cncern is nt relevant t the Australian cntext f this review. Numerus studies have cnfirmed that lead stabilisers are lcked int the plymer matrix s that the lead des nt migrate frm the plastic. While leaching is still pssible under specific cnditins, the ability f lead t leach is extremely lw (Scheirs, 2003). Cadmium Stabilisers Mst cadmium cmpunds are harmful and dangerus t the envirnment. Sme are classified as knwn human carcingens. (Scheirs, 2003). The EU issued a directive in 1988 which impsed a ban n the use f cadmium in mst PVC prducts in Eurpe (Scheirs, 2003). Australian manufactured PVC prducts d nt use cadmium stabilisers hwever imprted prducts may d s (Scheirs, 2003). Organtin Stabilisers All tin stabilisers are classified as txic and a few are als classified as txic fr reprductin (EC, 2009). Organtin stabilisers, specifically ctyl and methyl tin prducts, have extensive natinal apprvals fr fd cntact applicatins (Scheirs, 2003). Organtin stabilizers are nt persistent in the envirnment due t micrbial activity. All rgantin stabilizers degrade int inrganic tin (Scheirs, 2003). Organtin stabilisers are used in PVC pipe in Australia. In Eurpe they are used in flring prducts. The mst cmmn uses f rgantin stabilisers wrldwide including Australia are in pipe, rigid prfile, rigid sheet and bttles (Scheirs, 2003).The risk assciated with the use f rgantin stabilisers in PVC has been cncluded t carry minimal risk due t a number f factrs, particularly lw txicity resulting frm minimal expsure, limited leaching frm the finished PVC prducts and very lw ectxicity due t rapid degradatin (CSIRO 2001). Fllwing a risk assessment, risk reductin measures are currently under discussin at EU level. These measures may include a prhibitin f butyl tin stabilisers in 2010 (excluding a few applicatins). Use f ctyl tin may be limited in a few applicatins where the prducts are in cntact with the skin (EC, 2009). PAGE 14 f 33

15 Calcium Zinc Stabilisers (Ca/Zn) and Organic Stabilisers Calcium zinc stabilisers and rganic stabilisers are the main alternatives t heavy metal based stabilisers. N health r envirnmental cncerns have been identified fr these stabilisers as part f this review. Stabilisers General The main cncern is that stabilisers, and their breakdwn prducts (as well as pure PVC slids), culd be released in slid (particulate), liquid, r gaseus frm during the prductin f PVC prducts. Wrkers culd be expsed under these cnditins. Hwever, clsed lid prductin limits this. Expsure is limited t times when chemicals are being added t the clsed mixers (CA EPA, 2006). Cnclusins (Stabilisers) The PVC industry has recgnised cncerns relating t cadmium and lead stabilisers and has largely phased these ut, r is in the prcess f ding s. Such stabilisers are n lnger being used in the majrity f prducts relevant t this review. Aviding the use f these stabilisers, particularly cadmium, represents best practice. Alternative stabilisers include calcium zinc stabilisers, rganic and rgantin stabilisers. These are acceptable frm a health and envirnmental pint f view when used in PVC prducts relevant t this review. Manufacturing facilities perating clsed lid frmulatins (as previusly described in sectin 4.2) represent best practice with regards t minimising ccupatinal expsure t stabilisers, r release f stabilisers int the envirnment. Plasticisers Cncern Sme plasticisers used in PVC prducts are cnsidered txic and represent a health risk. Literature review (Plasticisers) Plasticisers are used t make PVC sft and flexible. Plasticisers are nly used in plasticised (flexible) PVC and nt in rigid, un-plasticised PVC (upvc) Cmmn plasticisers are phthalates (r phthalate esters) (AV, 2009). There are 24 different phthalates plasticisers used in Australia (NICNAS, 2008). Only a few f these are relevant t PVC prducts in the built envirnment. Table 2 lists the mst cmmn phthalates used as plasticisers in PVC building prducts. The 24 phthalates studied by NICNAS display different txicity levels and risks. Acute txicity, skin and eye irritatin and sensitisatin ptential are lw fr all phthalates (NICNAS, 2008). PAGE 15 f 33

16 The widely held view f ptential reprductive and develpmental txicity assciated with certain phthalates is cnfirmed in rdent studies, especially thse with straight chain carbn backbnes f C4-C6. In particular this relates t diethylhexyl phthalate (DEHP), benzyl butyl phthalate (BBP) diethyl butyl phthalate (DBP) which are relevant t PVC prducts in the built envirnment. The use f ther phthalates accrding t NICNAS des nt pse a significant health risk (NICNAS, 2008). DEHP can migrate frm plastics. It has been detected in water, sil and fd and is cnsidered a widespread envirnmental cntaminant. DEHP can enter the envirnment via a number f different rutes, ne f which is leaching frm PVC prducts during use (Scheirs, 2003). Other phthalates have als been detected in a range f envirnmental water samples including drinking water. Advances in detectin methds have decreased the detectin threshld f phthalates in water (Scheirs, 2003) The main alternative substances used fr phthalate replacement are adipates, citrates, cyclhexyl and di-isnnyl cyclhexane. These are nw mainly used in plastic ty prducts and therefre nt relevant t this review. Adipates are nt used in building prducts due t their inferir perfrmance (Scheirs, 2003). Plasticisers, and their breakdwn prducts, might be released in slid (particulate), liquid, r gaseus frm during the manufacture f PVC prducts. Expsure f wrkers culd ccur under these cnditins, hwever, clsed lid frmulatin practices typically limits expsure t times when chemicals are being added t the clsed mixers (CA EPA, 2006). Phthalates can enter the envirnment during plasticiser prductin, distributin and in the prcess f incrpratin int PVC resin (Scheirs, 2003). Large releases f additive chemicals t the general envirnment are rare. Under a catastrphic scenari (e.g. spill r fire and/r pr manufacturing management cnditins) large spills are pssible (CA EPA, 2006). DEHP is n lnger used in the vinyl flring manufactured in Australia, nr is it used in mst PVC cable and wire insulatin manufactured in Australia. It is hwever still used verseas and will therefre be present in mst imprted cable and wire prducts and t a lesser degree in sme imprted flring prducts. Cnclusins (Plasticisers) The cncerns related t the txicity f sme phthalates used in PVC building prducts have been cnfirmed. These cncerns primarily relate t the shrt-chained phthalates DEHP, BBP and DBP. Aviding r substituting these phthalates represents best practice fr plasticised PVC building and fit ut prducts. Manufacturing facilities perating clsed lid frmulatins represent best practice with regards t minimising ccupatinal expsure t plasticisers and minimising release f plasticisers t the envirnment. PAGE 16 f 33

17 4.5 ACCIDENTAL BUILDING FIRES Cncern PVC emits txic gases when burned. This is a health cncern fr building ccupants and fire fighters during a building fire. Literature Review Rigid PVC is very difficult t ignite cmpared with ther plastics; this is due t the chlrine cntent which acts as a fire suppressant. Rigid PVC will nly ignite if a sustained heat surce is present. Flexible PVC is easier t ignite due t the high flammability f plasticisers. This smetimes requires flame retardants t be incrprated depending n prduct requirements and plasticiser lading. PVC may actually play a beneficial rle in suppressing building fires due t its high ignitin temperature (CSIRO, 2001). When burned PVC can impact the health f fire fighters and individuals in the vicinity f the site; hwever this is true f many ther materials. The majr gases prduced in the burning f PVC resin include carbn mnxide, carbn dixide, hydrgen chlride, water and trace amunts f ther prducts f incmplete cmbustin, including dixins (CSIRO, 2001, CA EPA, 2006, USGBC, 2007). Fire-fighters nt using a breathing apparatus when fighting a fire are taking an unnecessary risk, regardless f the presence f PVC (USGBC, 2007). PVC s impact when burned is n different in cmparisn with many ther materials (e.g. ther plastics), the exceptin being hydrgen chlride which is an irritant and highly crrsive (CSIRO, 2001). Carbn mnxide is the mst significant health risk in building fires. Hwever, PVC des nt stand ut in this respect given that many ther materials are far mre significant surces f carbn mnxide as a result f fire (CSIRO, 2001). Overall there is insufficient data t warrant a discriminatin f PVC prducts in the built envirnment based n the impact f txic gases created during a building fire (USGBC, 2007). Cnclusins There is insufficient ratinale fr discriminatin against PVC prducts in the built envirnment n the basis f the impact f txic gases created in an accidental building fire. PAGE 17 f 33

18 4.6 END OF LIFE PRODUCT RECYCLING Cncern Lw recycling levels f pst-cnsumer PVC waste represents a weakness in the PVC life cycle when cmpared with current end f life recycling rates f ther plastics. Literature Review PVC prducts are fully recyclable as a thermplastic resin and can effectively be recycled if efficiently cllected and srted frm the waste stream. Recycled feed stck can be readily used again in newly manufactured prducts (CA EPA, 2006). Pst-industrial PVC is rutinely and easily recycled (i.e. manufacturing residues and scrap) in many applicatins (CA EPA, 2006). In Australia the main streams f pst-cnsumer PVC waste are cntainers and cable insulatin. Apprximately tnnes f pst-cnsumer PVC cable insulatin are recycled in Australia each year (Scheirs, 2003). In 2007, a ttal f 11,623 tnnes f PVC was recycled (PACIA Annual Recycling Survey, 2008) f which nearly 3,000 tnnes was packaging and mre than 8,600 tnnes was durables including building prducts. PVC waste is estimated t cnstitute less than 1% f all waste landfilled each year in Australia (Hyder, 2005). Available literature refers t the fllwing limiting factrs in the recycling f PVC: Cntaminatin cmmnly ccurs between cmbinatins f rigid and flexible PVC, metals and ther plastics (e.g. cpper residue in cable insulatin) (Scheirs, 2003). Additives, which are used in a large variety f prducts and in varius cmbinatins, are als a majr surce f PVC recyclate cntaminatin. Many PVC prducts are durable rigid lng-life items especially when used in the built envirnment cntext (e.g. piping). The lng life f these prducts has traditinally limited the amunt f pst-cnsumer material available fr recycling int new prducts (Scheirs, 2003, Hyder, 2008, CA EPA, 2006). The recycling f sme prducts may serve t spread txic additives int new prducts. Althugh many new PVC prducts are heavy metal free, PVC recyclate may cntains sme heavy metal cntent and will cntinue t d s fr many years (Scheirs, 2003). Encapsulating such recyclate within new prducts can address this by eliminating cntact between the user and heavy metals. PVC materials in cmpsite prducts are ften nt salvaged. When PVC cmpsite materials are salvaged they are ften dwn-cycled due t the difficulty assciated with separating the prducts int uncntaminated single stream cmpnents (CA EPA, 2006). Sme prgrams fr recvery f PVC frm cmpsite prducts d exist (e.g. recvery f carpet backing). Nte: many f these cnstraints are nt unique t PVC but are cmmn in ne way r anther t many ther materials. Mst pipe prducts (f varius materials) are nt recvered frm the grund after use PAGE 18 f 33

19 and the bulk is left in situ. PVC pipe that is recvered is largely land filled in Australia (Scheirs, 2003, PACIA, 2008). Abve grund pipe can be mre easily recvered and recycled. In Eurpe less PVC is land filled in cmparisn with Australia (Scheirs, 2003). This is due t a successful waste srting system (CA, ERP, 2006) and the widespread use f emissin-cntrlled PVC incineratin fr energy recvery (e.g. Germany) (Scheirs, 2003). The incineratin f PVC waste is als cmmn in the USA (USGBC 2007) hwever is nt practiced in Australia apart frm medical waste. PVC in medical waste is nt relevant t this review. The building cnstructin and demlitin (BC&D) sectr cntributin t pst-cnsumer recycled PVC material represents a minr percentage f the PVC that is recycled in Australia. The main barriers t recycling PVC in this sectr include: lack f awareness by sme cmpanies abut the ability t recycle PVC frm BC&D surces; perceptin that PVC recyclate has a lw value, particularly when cmpared with reprcessing csts; perceived difficulty in handling material, particularly cmpactin issues; relatively lw vlume f material when cmpared with ther materials, and a perceptin that recycling BC&D surced PVC is nt wrthwhile. (Adapted frm Hyder, 2008) Mst PVC recyclate available in Australia is then used in the fllwing prducts: industrial and dmestic flexible hse; general pipe; husehld pipe and fittings; industrial pipe; flring (Hyder, 2008). PVC recycling can be mst easily carried ut thrugh simple mechanical melting and remulding f similar materials. It can als be recycled thrugh mre cmplex heat-driven r slvent chemical recycling. This invlves degrading mixed PVC wastes int their chemical cmpnents and using them again as raw materials in the prductin f virgin PVC. These prcesses are nt cst effective at present (CA EPA, 2006). The advantages f increasing PVC recyclate int virgin PVC prcesses include reducing wrker expsure t txic substances during virgin feedstck prductin since recycling des nt invlve Chlrine, EDC, and VCM prductin. Als increased recycling will reduce the risks assciated with PVC in landfill fires and illegal r waste burning (CA EPA, 2006). PVC manufacturers shuld supprt a vluntary cllectin f waste PVC cnstructin prducts as a means f aviding waste-related cncerns (Scheirs, 2003). Cnclusins PVC can be recycled and PVC prducts are being recycled in Australia. Levels f PVC recycling are nt limited by the material itself but by industry practices. Recmmendatins t vercme these are given belw. PVC prduct manufacturers shuld prvide the market with extended supplier PAGE 19 f 33

20 respnsibility (take-back agreements) fr their prducts. This cmmitment will facilitate increased recycling and create awareness f recycling pprtunities. Design fr dematerialisatin and recycling f pst-industrial PVC waste are als useful measures fr reducing the verall impact f prducts. The building cnstructin and demlitin sectr shuld be fully infrmed abut the advantages and ease f PVC recycling. 4.7 ADDITIVES IN LANDFILL Cncern PVC additives leach frm landfills cntaminating water and sil and therefre represent a health risk when landfill is used t dispse f PVC. Literature review In landfill, plasticisers can leach int the envirnment frm PVC prducts after dispsal. This has nw been widely reprted in a number f published studies. The verall cnclusin hwever is that PVC is stable in landfill and des nt cntribute significantly t landfill leachate and gas emissins (Scheirs, 2003). An EU study undertaken in 2000 fund that the PVC plymer is resistant and stable under sil-buried and landfill cnditins. In additin, because stabilisers are encapsulated in the PVC matrix, the migratin rate is expected t be extremely lw and wuld nly affect the surface f the PVC rather than the bulk f the material. Lsses f additives at a lw range have been detected. Heavy metals placed in an acidic medium, resulted in elevated cncentratins in the leachates. Therefre a prblem is created in the early stage f a landfill site where acidgenic cnditins are cmmn. Hwever, the cnclusins f this study indicate that the cntributin PVC t the ttal lad f lead and zinc in typical landfill leachate is negligible (EU, 2000). Despite the abve mentined pints n resistance and stability f the PVC plymer, emissins f phthalates t landfill leachates and int the aquatic envirnment cannt be excluded. This is particularly true in the case f DEHP and DIDP in ld and new PVC flring which demnstrates n decrease in release after treatment under aerbic cnditins. Cnsiderable amunts f plasticisers and stabilisers are released in leachate in landfills mre than 20 years ld. A release f phthalates under such cnditins is reprted in the literature in a range f 4% t 40 % (EU, 2000). Technical barriers (i.e. physical barriers) assciated with landfill liners and pipes fr leachate flw and cllectin are restricted by an estimated lifetime f up t 80 years. Hwever there are n reliable estimates f hw lng PVC will cntinue t leach. Emissins f additives derived frm the presence f PVC in landfills are therefre likely t last lnger than technical barriers, thus a prblem may arise in the future where landfill liners are breached and leachate enters grund water (EU, 2000). Cnclusins regarding the release f ther additives (e.g. cadmium and lead) were nt PAGE 20 f 33

21 well established by the EU study. Althugh bth were fund in leachate, they may arise frm a variety f surces including PVC (EU, 2000). While PVC materials are likely t cntribute t gas emissins frm landfills, VCM fund in landfill is emitted thrugh several prcesses in which PVC prducts are prbably nt a significant player. PVC des nt de-plymerise t VCM and/ r ther degradatin prducts unless placed under extreme thermal, chemical r phtlytic cnditins. PVC sludge waste frm manufacturing facilities may hwever be a significant surce; chlrinated slvents and VCM aersl prpellants are ther surces f VCM emissins frm landfill (VCM is n lnger used as a aersl) (EC, 2000, CA EPA, 2006). PVC manufacturers shuld supprt a vluntary cllectin f waste PVC cnstructin prducts as means f aviding waste-related cncerns (Scheirs, 2003). Cnclusins It is pssible fr PVC additives t leach frm landfills Studies n the amunt f leachate differ in their results. There is a clear ratinale fr reducing the amunt f PVC ging t landfill. The avidance f lead and cadmium stabilisers and certain phthalates in PVC prducts manufactured accrding t best practice will eliminate the ptential risks f these additives cntaminating the envirnment as a result f landfill dispsal. 4.8 WASTE FIRES Cncern Txic gases are emitted when PVC waste r waste cntaining PVC is burned. This represents a health risk. Literature review The presence f chlrine is a majr cntributr t the frmatin f dixins and furans during the cmbustin f waste. The amunt f dixins greatly depends n the fire cnditins (i.e. xygen availability and temperature), the type f catalyst available (e.g. cpper), and the presence f chlrinated material (EC, 2000, Scheirs, 2003). Inrganic chlrine will always be present in landfill frm nn-pvc surces. Even if n PVC was present, the ptential fr dixin release as a result f landfill fire exists (CSIRO, 2001). Studies in the area f uncntrlled burning have fund that when the PVC level in the waste is increased frm 0 t 1%, the ttal dixin emissins increase seven-fld (Scheirs, 2003). The mutagenicity f particulates frm cmbustin f PVC is higher than thse prduced PAGE 21 f 33

22 frm the cmbustin f ther cmmdity plastics such as PS, PET, and PE (Scheirs, 2003). In Australia, backyard burning is uncmmn (Scheirs, 2003). Under the Australian Prtectin f the Envirnment (Cntrl f Burning) Regulatin 2001, backyard burning is illegal and the lighting f fires in landfill is als illegal (DECC, 2008). Data related t the ccurrence f accidental landfill fires in Australia is limited. Waste incineratin (cntrlled r uncntrlled) is nt practiced in Australia, with the exceptin f medical waste (which is nt relevant t this review). N data n the ccurrence, severity and frequency f landfill fires in licensed and unlicensed landfills in Australia is publicly available. Licensed landfills are thse accepting greater than 5,000 tnnes per annum (which includes the majr city landfills and mst likely the resting place fr mst building cnstructin and demlitin waste). Unlicensed landfills are thse typically run by reginal cuncils, taking less than 5,000 tnnes per annum. Therefre, it cannt be cnclusively derived whether landfill fires are a majr surce f dixin emissins in Australia. PVC manufacturers shuld supprt a vluntary cllectin f waste PVC cnstructin prducts as a means f aviding waste-related cncerns (Scheirs, 2003). Cnclusins The presence f chlrinated prducts in waste results in increased dixin emissins in the event f burning in landfill areas as well as in nn-high temperature and nn-emissin cntrlled waste incineratin (e.g. backyard burning). Landfill fires are illegal in Australia and n data is available n accidental landfill fires. Waste incineratin is als illegal in Australia and is nt cmmnly cnducted in backyards (as it is in the US). It is difficult t determine t what extent landfill fires cntribute t pr end f life management utcmes fr PVC, due t the lack f publicly available data n this tpic in Australia. Hwever, there is n clear ratinale fr discriminatin f PVC building prducts based n this cncern. Risks frm landfill fires d cntribute t the ratinale fr the diversin f PVC waste frm landfill wherever pssible. PVC manufacturers shuld, either independently r thrugh their industry assciatins, wrk with lcal and state gvernments t facilitate measures that will achieve increases in the cllectin and recycling f end f life PVC prducts. The GBCA encurages lcal, state and federal waste management authrities t imprve their reprting practices n landfill fires. PAGE 22 f 33

23 5.0 Summaries f PVC Life Cycle Assessments This sectin prvides summaries f three imprtant PVC life cycle assessments (LCA) released in the past decade. These LCAs prvide detailed cmparisns between PVC and nn-pvc alternatives specifically in relatin t building prducts. 5.1 USGBC TSAC 2007 The United States Green Building Cuncil (USGBC) Technical and Scientific Advisry Cmmittee (TSAC) prvides the latest study t infrm LCA-based decisin making fr PVC prduct categries relevant t this review. In 2001 the USGBC cmmenced a prcess aimed at establishing the merit f a credit in the LEED rating tls that encurages the avidance f PVC in building prducts. The study cncentrated n PVC flring, Drain Waste Vent (DWV) pipe, siding (cladding) and PVC windws as the fur mst cmmn PVC uses in the US built envirnment. The study cncluded that the perfrmance f PVC relative t the alternative materials depends n tw factrs; life cycle scpe, and whether the fcus is human health r envirnmental impacts. Where human health risks are the fcus then PVC was reprted as cnsistently the wrst amng the materials studied, in particular if ccupatinal expsure and end-f-life issues such as backyard burning and landfill fires are included. Hwever, in sme cases such as windws and sidings, PVC perfrms n par and smetimes better than alternatives. Where envirnmental cncerns are the fcus then PVC perfrms better in mst uses studied (with the exceptin f flring). The USGBC summarised the utcmes f the TSAC reprt as fllws: Frm an all f life perspective, n single material shws up as the abslute best acrss all human health and envirnmental impact categries included in the study, nr des any material cnsistently presents itself as the wrst. Cancer - PVC is cnsistently the wrst fr each f the fur prduct types studied (windws, siding, pipes and flring). Human Health - PVC cnsistently cmes ut either tied fr wrst r abslute wrst. Envirnmental ranking - PVC's perfrmance is mixed, still abslute wrst in the case f flring and sheet vinyl - but better than ne alternative and rughly equal t the alternatives in the case f siding, DWV pipe and PVC windws. Within the specific envirnment subcategries perfrmance is scattered with nly crk flring cnsistently utperfrming every ther alternative in its categry in all envirnment indicatrs. (Adapted frm USGBC, 2007) PAGE 23 f 33

24 5.2 TSAC ADAPTION BY BRANZ 2009 In an Australian specific, and Drain Waste Vent (DWV) pipe specific, adaptin f the USGBC TSAC reprt t Australia, BRANZ have cncluded that the differences between the situatin as described in the US and Australia renders PVC preferable in Australia. This is mainly due t the fact that PVC pipe uses less material in Australia than its US cunterpart because Australian multi-layered riented PVC pipe (PVC-O) is significantly thinner. In additin, landfill fires and waste incineratin d nt seem t ccur in Australia t the same extent as in the US. Tw peer reviews f the BRANZ reprt were carried ut by independent LCA practitiners n behalf f the Department f Envirnment and Climate Change (DECC). In general terms these peer reviews cnfirm the verall cnclusins that, frm an envirnmental impact perspective, PVC pipe perfrms in a similar way t, r better than, alternative pipe materials. (Adapted frm BRANZ, 2009) In 2009 peer reviews f this reprt, cmmissined by DECC, were cnducted by: Greg Peters, Centre fr Water and Waste Technlgies, Schl f Civil and Envirnmental Engineering, University f New Suth Wales (UNSW); and Jhn Scheirs, ExcelPlas Plymer Technlgy and Testing. A life cycle assessment cmparing pipe materials cnducted in Eurpe in 1999 (with a similar scpe t the BRANZ reprt) fund that cmparable cnclusins als apply within a Eurpean cntext (CSIRO, 2001). 5.3 EUROPEAN COMMISSION 2004 The Eurpean Cmmissin study is a literature review f LCA studies frm acrss Eurpe. Althugh the studies cncentrated n prduct use rather than material impact the fllwing generalisatins have been made by the study: The prductin prcess f PVC (particularly the prcesses frm the extractin f crude il and rck salt up t VCM prductin) plays a highly significant rle in the envirnmental impacts f the material. The prductin f stabilisers and plasticisers als play a significant rle. Mechanical recycling, which lps the material back directly int new life cycles, substitutes the prcesses f resurce extractin and virgin PVC prductin. A factr t cnsider is the lack f a strng cmmdities market fr plastics recyclate (in cntrast t sme metals fr example). In additin, prducts with recycled cntent may nt be accepted by the cnsumer due t lwer ptical r aesthetic quality (even if the technical quality, mechanical prperties and durability are the same). Incineratin, in cnjunctin with municipal waste dispsal, is a simple ptin that allws fr the partial recvery f energy and substances, if state-f-the-art technlgy is applied. Depending n the kind f prduct, the envirnmental impact during use r at the end f useful life, can be even mre imprtant than the envirnmental impact f material prductin; the main factrs t cnsider in such evaluatin are weight, durability, PAGE 24 f 33