Designing for. Situation Awareness. Second Edition. Mica R. Endsley and Debra G. Jones. An Approach to User-Centered Design.

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1 Designing for Situation Awareness An Approach to User-Centered Design Second Edition Mica R. Endsley and Debra G. Jones CRC Press Taylor & Francis Group Boca Raton London New York CRC Press is an imprint of the Taylor & Francis Group, an Informa business

2 Contents Preface Acknowledgments Authors xiii xv xvii PART I Understanding Situation Awareness in System Design Chapter 1 User-Centered Design Who Is This Book for? Why Do We Need User-Centered Design? Technology-Centered Design User-Centered Design What Does User-Centered Design Mean? What User-Centered Design Does Not Mean Principles for User-Centered Design Organize Technology around the User's Goals, Tasks, and Abilities Technology Should Be Organized around the Way Users Process Information and Make Decisions Technology Must Keep the User in Control and Aware of the State of the System Situation Awareness: The Key to User-Centered Design 11 Chapter 2 What Is Situation Awareness? SA Defined Level 1 SA: Perception of Elements in the Environment Level 2 SA: Comprehension of the Current Situation Level 3 SA: Projection of Future Status Time as a Part of SA Situation Awareness as a Product of the Process Perception and Attention Working Memory Mental Models, Schema, and Scripts Goals and SA Expectations Automaticity and SA Summary 28 v

3 yj Contents Chapter 3 SA Demons: The Enemies of Situation Awareness Attentional Tunneling Requisite Memory Trap Workload, Anxiety, Fatigue, and Other Stressors Data Overload Misplaced Salience Complexity Creep Errant Mental Models Out-of-the-Loop Syndrome Summary 41 Chapter 4 Design Process Systems Development Life Cycle Waterfall Model ofdesign Concurrent Engineering Model User Interface Design Process Requirements Analysis Technology Analysis Design Conceptualization Function Analysis/Function Allocation User Interface Design Design Concept Products Prototype Development Modeling Rapid Prototyping Simulation Testing Field Tests Test and Evaluation Subjective Measures Objective Measures of Performance Workload Measures Situation Awareness Measures Final Design Situation Awareness-Oriented Design 59 PART II Creating Situation Awareness-Oriented Designs Chapter 5 Determining SA Requirements Goal-Directed Task Analysis Methodology Overview Interviews 64

4 Contents vii 5.4 Determining the Preliminary Goal Structure Goal Determination Goals versus Tasks Goals versus Information Requirements Callouts Summary Decisions SA Requirements General Future Interviews Interview Issues Maximizing Data Collection Participant Personality Factors Audio/Video Recording Organizational Tips GDTA Validation 77 Chapter 6 Principles of Designing for SA From Theory to Design Case Study: SA-Oriented Design MCC SA Requirements Analysis MCC System Evaluation Lack of Integration of Information Lack of Required Information Poorly Presented or Lacking Information to Support Diagnosis Major Functions Not Supported Integration Time Consuming Information Not Made Explicit Needed Communications Sporadic Information on Adjacent Sector Activities Not Provided Global SA Poor Data Overload Poor User Interfaces Situation Awareness-Oriented Interface Design Hardware Status Map Status Activity History Comms Set-Up Weather Map Summary of Interface Design Case Study 110

5 viii Contents Chapter 7 Confidence and Uncertainty in SA and Decision Making Uncertainty Types and Sources ofuncertainty Level 1: Data Uncertainty Level 2: Comprehension Uncertainty Level 3: Projection Uncertainty Decision Uncertainty Role of Confidence in Linking SA and Decision Making Management of Uncertainty Search for More Information Reliance on Defaults Conflict Resolution Thresholding Bet-Hedging and Contingency Planning Narrowing Options Design Principles for Representing Uncertainty 121 Chapter 8 Dealing with Complexity Simplified View of Complexity System Complexity Operational Complexity Apparent Complexity Cognitive Complexity Display Complexity Task Complexity Role of the User's Mental Model Design Principles for Taming Complexity 142 Chapter 9 Alarms, Diagnosis, and SA An Alarming Practice Processing Alarms in the Context of SA Alarm Reliability Confirmation Expectancy Disruptions and Diversions Workload and Alarms Alarm Formats and Compliance Diagnosis of Alarms Alarm Reduction Schemes Principles for the Design of Alarm Systems 161

6 Contents ix Chapter 10 Automation and Situation Awareness Automation: A Help or a Hindrance? Out-of-the-Loop Syndrome Vigilance, Complacency, and Monitoring Active versus Passive Processing System Feedback Quality Automation and Level of Understanding Decision Support Dilemma New Approaches to Automation Adaptive Automation Levels of Automation Principles for Designing Automated Systems 186 Chapter 11 Designing to Support SA for Multiple and Distributed Operators Team Operations SA in Teams What Is Shared SA? Critical Factors Affecting SA in Teams Shared SA Requirements Shared SA Devices Shared SA Mechanisms Shared SA Processes Interrelationship between Factors SA in Distributed Teams SA Breakdowns in Teams Design Principles for Supporting Team Operations 213 Chapter 12 Unmanned and Remotely Operated Vehicles Unmanned Vehicles for Many Uses Classes of Unmanned Vehicle Control Human Error in Unmanned Vehicle Operations Situation Awareness Requirements for Unmanned Vehicle Operations Challenges for SA in Remote Operations Poor Sensory Data, Intermittent Data, and Time-Lags Difficulties in Unmanned Vehicle Localization Demanding Tasks in Complex Environments Low-Level Data Overload and Interface Design Multitasking in Unmanned Vehicle Operations Lack of Support for Multi-Person Operations Increased Autonomy for Unmanned Vehicle Operations 228

7 X Contents 12.6 Factors for Effective Design of Unmanned Vehicle Tasks and Systems Unmanned Vehicle Displays Unmanned Vehicle Controls Multiple Unmanned Vehicle Controls Support for Team Coordination and Collaboration Summary 233 Chapter 13 SA Oriented Training Need for Training to Enhance SA Challenges for Novices Mental Models Form a Key Mechanism for Expertise Schema of Prototypical Situations or Patterns Critical Skills for SA Examples of SA Deficits in Novices Training Approaches for Improving Situation Awareness Classroom and Exercise-Based Training Approaches SA Trainer for General Aviation Interactive SA Trainer Virtual Environment Situation Awareness Review System SA Behavioral Rating SA Communications Rating SA Probes UseofVESARSin After Action Reviews Situation Awareness Virtual Instructor Summary 255 PART III Completing the Design Cycle Chapter 14 Evaluating Design Concepts for SA Indirect Measures of Situation Awareness Process Measures Verbal Protocols Communication Analysis Psychophysiological Metrics Behavioral and Performance-Based Measures Behavioral Measures Performance Outcome Measures 265

8 Contents xi 14.2 Direct Measures of Situation Awareness Subjective Measures Situational Awareness Rating Technique Situation Awareness-Subjective Workload Dominance Technique Situational Awareness Rating Scale Objective Measures Situation Awareness Global Assessment Technique Online Probes Measuring Team SA Case Study Test Case and Testing Description Implementation and Analysis of SA Measures Summary 283 Chapter 15 Applying SA-Oriented Design to Complex Systems Combating the Enemies of Situation Awareness Attentional Narrowing Requisite Memory Trap Workload, Anxiety, Fatigue, and Other Stressors Data Overload Misplaced Salience Complexity Creep Errant Mental Models Out-of-the-Loop Syndrome SA-Oriented Design Synergy System Evaluation Future Directions 296 Appendix A: Goal-Directed Task Analysis for Commercial Airline Pilots 297 References 339 Index 365