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1 ENERGY RESOURCES AVAILABILITY, MANAGEMENT, and ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACTS Kenneth J. Skipka Louis Theodore CRC Press Taylor & Francis Croup Boca Raton London New York CRC Press is an imprint of the Taylor & Francis Group, an informa business
2 Contents Series Preface Series Editor Preface The Authors xvii xxi xxiii xxv Section I Basic Principles 1. Introduction to the Issues 3 Introduction 3 Energy Terms 4 Conservation Law for Energy 6 Enthalpy 8 Heat Transfer 10 Net Energy Analysis 11 Developing a National Energy Policy 13 Short Term 14 Long Term 14 References Thermodynamic Principles: Entropy Analysis 17 Introduction 17 Qualitative Review of the Second Law 18 Describing Equations 19 The Heat Exchanger Dilemma 22 Applications 26 Concluding Comments 29 References Energy Demand 31 Introduction 31 Early History 32 The First Humans 33 The Industrial Revolution 34 Recent Years 35 Effect of Demand of Energy Resources 36 Goal 36 Oil 37 Natural Gas 38 OilShale 38 vii
3 viii Contents Nuclear Energy 39 Solar 39 Hydroelectric 40 Geothermal 40 Canada 41 Energy Needs 41 Energy Resources 41 Tar Sands 42 Future Energy Demands 42 Concluding Remarks 47 References Sustainability and Green Science/Engineering 49 Introduction 49 Sustainability 50 Historical Perspective 50 Resource Limitations 51 Sustainable Development Considerations 53 Resources for Sustainability 57 Future Trends 57 Green Science/Engineering 58 Introduction to Green Chemistry 58 Introduction to Green Science/Engineering 61 Green Chemistry versus Green Engineering 62 Green Resources (Internet Sources) 64 References Energy Regulations 67 Introduction 67 The Regulatory System 68 Laws and Regulations: The Differences 69 The Role of the States 71 The Department of Energy (DOE) 73 The Federal Energy Regulatory Commission (FERC) 75 Energy Information Administration (EIA) 76 The Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) 77 The 2013 New York State Energy Plan 80 Overview of New York's State Energy Plan 81 References The Modern Energy Matrix: An Overview 89 Introduction 89 Energy System Components 90 Resources 90 Production 91
4 Contents ix Transportation/Transmission 92 Goal 93 Oil 94 Natural Gas 95 Utilization 95 Energy Matrix Overview 97 References 102 Section II Energy Resources: Fossil Fuels 7. Coal 105 Introduction 105 Early History 107 Availability/Distribution and Characterization 108 Availability/Distribution 109 Characterization 112 Extraction, Processing, and Transportation/Transmission 119 Extraction 119 Processing 124 Transportation/Transmission 125 Environmental Issues 126 Future Prospects and Concerns 127 References Oil 131 Introduction 131 Early History 132 Availability/Distribution and Characterization 133 Availability/Distribution 133 Characterization 134 Extraction, Processing, and Transportation/Transmission 140 Extraction 140 Processing 144 Transportation/Transmission 147 Pipelines 147 Ships 148 Trains 148 Environmental Issues 148 Future Prospects and Concerns 150 References Natural Gas 151 Introduction 151
5 x Contents Early History 152 Availability/Distribution and Characterization 153 Availability/Distribution 153 Characterization 155 Extraction, Processing, and Transportation/Transmission 157 Extraction 157 Processing 158 Transportation/Transmission 158 Environmental Issues 159 Future Prospects and Concerns 160 References ShaleOil 163 Introduction 163 Early History 164 Availability/Distribution and Characterization 165 Extraction, Processing, and Transportation/Transmission 166 Extraction 166 Processing 167 Transportation/Transmission 168 Environmental Issues 168 Future Prospects and Concerns 170 References Tar Sands 173 Introduction 173 Early History 174 Availability/Distribution and Characterization 175 Availability/Distribution 175 Characterization 176 Extraction, Processing, and Transportation/Transmission 176 Extraction 176 Processing 178 Transportation/Transmission 179 Environmental Issues 179 Future Prospects and Concerns 180 References 181 Section III Other Energy Resources 12. Solar Energy 185 Introduction 185 Early History 186
6 Contents xi Availability, Distribution, and Characterization 187 Availability 187 Distribution 188 Characterization 189 Extraction, Processing, and Transportation/Transmission 190 Extraction 190 Processing 192 Transportation/Transmission 192 Environmental Issues 193 Future Prospects and Concerns 194 References Nuclear Energy 197 Introduction 197 Early History 199 Availability/Distribution and Characterization 202 Availability/Distribution 202 Characterization 203 Extraction, Conversion, and Transportation/Transmission 203 Extraction and Conversion 203 Transportation/Transmission 207 Environmental Issues 207 Waste Disposal 208 Plant Accidents/Safety 209 Radiation Effects 209 Future Prospects and Concerns 212 References Hydroelectric Energy 215 Introduction 215 Early History 217 Availability/Distribution and Characterization 218 Availability/Distribution 218 Characterization 220 Extraction, Processing, and Transportation/Transmission 221 Extraction 221 Processing 222 Transportation/Transmission 223 Environmental Issues 224 Future Prospects and Concerns 225 References Wind Energy 227 Introduction 227 Early History 228
7 xii Contents Availability/Distribution and Characterization 229 Availability/Distribution 229 Characterization 230 Extraction, Processing, and Transportation/Transmission 233 Extraction 233 Processing 234 Transportation/Transmission 236 Environmental Issues 236 Future Prospects and Concerns 237 References Geothermal Energy 239 Introduction 239 Early History 240 Availability/Distribution and Characterization 241 Availability/Distribution 241 Characterization 243 Extraction, Processing, and Transportation/Transmission 244 Extraction 244 Processing and Transportation/Transmission 245 Environmental Issues 247 Future Prospects and Concerns 249 References Hydrogen Energy 251 Introduction 251 Early History 252 Availability/Distribution and Characterization 253 Availability/Distribution 253 Characterization 253 Extraction, Processing, and Transportation/Transmission 254 Extraction 254 Processing 254 Transportation/Transmission 256 Environmental Issues 257 Future Prospects and Concerns 258 References Biomass Energy 261 Introduction 261 Early History v 262 Availability/Distribution and Characterization 262 Availability/Distribution 262 Characterization 264 Refuse/Municipal Solid Waste (MSW) 264
8 Contents xiii Wood 265 Hazardous Wastes 265 Biof uels 268 Extraction, Processing, and Transportation/Transmission 270 Extraction 270 Processing 271 Transportation/Transmission 272 Environmental Issues 272 Future Prospects and Concerns 274 References Other Energy Sources 277 Introduction 277 Fuels Derived from Coals and Oils 278 Coke 278 Coal Char and Liquids 278 Gaseous Fuels from Coal 279 By-Product Gas from Gasification 279 Coal-Water Mixture 280 Hydrocarbons 280 Hydrokinetic Energy 281 Tidal Energy 281 Ocean Thermal Energy 282 Wave Energy 283 References 283 Section IV Aspects of Energy Management 20. Energy Demand and Distribution Systems 287 Introduction 287 The Evolution of Energy Demand 288 Energy Stakeholders 291 The Role of Distribution Systems 294 References Conservation, Sustainability, and Green Engineering 297 Introduction 297 Energy Conservation 298 Chemical Plant and Process Applications 298 Domestic Applications 300 Cooling 301 Heating 302 Hot Water 302
9 xiv Contents Cooking 303 Lighting 303 New Appliances 304 Individual Efferts 304 Sustainability Approaches 305 Domestic Level 305 Benchmark Sustainability 306 Green Engineering 307 Buildings 307 Materials 308 Architects 309 Insulation 309 Ducts and Piping 310 Maintenance 310 Reduced Loads 311 Concluding Remarks 311 References Environmental Considerations 315 Introduction 315 Environmental Management Topics 317 Environmental Factors 318 The Health Risk Evaluation Process 321 The Hazard Risk Assessment Process 325 Concluding Remarks 327 References Economic Considerations 331 Introduction 331 Definitions 332 Simple Interest 332 Compound Interest 332 Present Worth 333 Evaluation of Sums of Money 333 Uniform Series of Payments 334 Depreciation 334 Fabricated Equipment Cost Index 335 Capital Recovery Factor 335 Present Net Worth 336 Perpetual Life 336 Break-Even Point 337 Approximate Rate of Return 337 Exact Rate of Return 337 Bonds 337 Incremental Cost 338
10 Contents xv Capital Costs 338 Operating Costs 341 Energy Cost Data 342 Oil 342 Coal 342 Natural Gas 343 Renewables 343 Nuclear Energy 343 Hidden Economic Factors 344 Project Evaluation and Optimization 345 Principles of Accounting 345 Concluding Remarks 349 References Political Considerations 351 Introduction 351 The Political Problem Associated with Natural Resource Wealth 353 Energy Politics 355 References Challenges Pacing Future Energy Policy Makers 359 Introduction 359 Present Energy State 361 Energy Sources of the Future 362 Some Policy Suggestions for the Future 363 Incentives 364 Environmental Protection 365 Unnecessary Use of Energy 365 Capital Needs 365 Applying the Concept of Net Energy 366 Societal Concerns 367 Energy Forecasts for New York State and Canada 369 New York State Plan 369 Canadian Plan 370 Concluding Remarks 371 References 372 Section V Energy Management Solutions 26. Introduction to Energy Policy Issues 377 Introduction 377 Energy Policy Priority 378 Is Energy Independence a Legitimate Goal? 379
11 xvi Contents The Responsibility of Government 381 Concluding Comments 383 References Energy-Environmental Interactions 385 Introduction 385 U.S. Energy-Environmental Policy Issues 387 General Overview/Comments 388 Net Energy Concepts 389 Interaction with Other Goals 390 Environmental Concerns: A Technological Mandate 393 Individual State Energy Policies 394 Global Energy Policies 396 References Quantitative Analysis of Energy Management Options 399 Introduction 399 Energy Resource Comparison Procedure 400 Energy Resource Comparative Analysis: United States ( ) Energy Resource Comparative Analysis: Developed Nations ( ) 407 Energy Resource Comparative Analysis: Underdeveloped Nations ( ) 409 References Solving the Energy Management Policy Challenge 413 Introduction 413 Public or Private Control 414 Management Approach 417 The Tasks at Hand 419 Design Considerations for an Energy Management Plan 420 Phase 1 Structural Elements 421 Phase 2 Team Organization and Leadership 421 Phase 3 Establish Goal and Objectives 422 Phase 4 Analytics 423 Phase 5 Implementation Strategy 423 Phase 6 Critical Reviews 424 Factors for Consideration in Developing Energy Policy 425 References 427 Epilogue 429 Index 431
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