LANDOLT-BÖRNSTEIN. Zahlenwerte und Funktionen aus Naturwissenschaften und Technik. Neue Serie. Gesamtherausgabe: O. Madelung

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1 LANDOLT-BÖRNSTEIN Zahlenwerte und Funktionen aus Naturwissenschaften und Technik Neue Serie Gesamtherausgabe: O. Madelung Gruppe III: Kristall- und Festkörperphysik Band 22 Halbleiter Ergänzungen und Erweiterungen zu Band 111/17 Herausgeber: O. Madelung M. Schulz Teilband b Störstellen und Defekte in Elementen der IV. Gruppe und III-V-Verbindungen C. A. J. Ammerlaan W. Bergholz B. Clerjaud H. Ennen H. G. Grimmeiss B. Hamilton U. Kaufmann W. v. Münch R. Murray R. C. Newman A. R. Peaker G. Pensl H.-J. Rath R. Sauer J. Schneider M. Schulz M. S. Skolnick N. A. Stolwijk P Vogl A.F. W. Willoughby W. Zulehner Herausgegeben von M. Schulz Springer-Verlag Berlin Heidelberg New York London Paris Tokyo HongKong

Table of contents Semiconductors Subvolume b: Impurities and defects in group IV elements and III-V Compounds (edited by M. SCHULZ) 1 Introduction (M. SCHULZ) 1 1.1 General remarks 1 1.

2 Table of contents Semiconductors Subvolume b: Impurities and defects in group IV elements and III-V Compounds (edited by M. SCHULZ) 1 Introduction (M. SCHULZ) General remarks Form of presentation Organization of the content Frequently used Symbols Conversion of units Abbreviations and acronyms Fundamental constants Periodic table of the elements 10 2 Trends of impurity and defect properties (P. VOGL) Outline of the theoretical chapters Introduction Characteristics of shallow and deep impurities Computational methods for impurities and defects Theoretical predictions of impurity properties Shallow impurity level energies Donors Acceptors Deep impurity level energies Donors Acceptors Chemical trends of deep and shallow impurity level energies Chemical trends in experimental data Prediction of chemical trends: Si, Ge, III-V, and II-VI Compounds Prediction of chemical trends: alloys Prediction of chemical trends: III-V interfaces Transition metal impurities Level energies and stable Charge states Silicon III-V Compounds II-VI Compounds Crystal field Splittings Spectroscopic g-values and hyperfine constants Intrinsic defects: vacancies, antisite impurities Silicon III-V Compounds Impurity complexes Silicon Compounds 22

Table of contents IX 2.2.7 Pressure dependence of impurity level energies 24 2.2.8 Impurity wave function amplitudes in EPR and ENDOR 24 2.2.8.1 Silicon 24 2.2.8.2 GaAs 24 2.2.9 Optical absorption cross sections of deep impurities 24 2.

3 Table of contents IX Pressure dependence of impurity level energies Impurity wave function amplitudes in EPR and ENDOR Silicon GaAs Optical absorption cross sections of deep impurities GaP GaAs Lattice relaxation caused by impurities Silicon GaAs GaP Localized vibrational modes duc to impurities Germanium Compounds Diffusion and migration of impurities Silicon Defect reactions Silicon GaAs Positron distributions and annihilation rates 28 Figures for 2 29 References for Measurement methods Electrical methods (G. PENSL) Introductory remarks Resistivity Photoconductivity Halleffect Standard Hall effect Photo-Hall effect Junction space Charge methods without photoexcitation Isothermal junction techniques Steady-state methods Transient methods Thermally stimulated junction techniques Junction space Charge methods with photoexcitation Steady-state methods Transient methods Deep level transient spectroscopy Basic concept Determination of impurity parameters Measurement techniques Minority carrier lifetime 74 Figures for References for Optical methods Absorption (R. MURRAY, R.C. NEWMAN) Introduction Measurement principle Transmission and reflection Interference fringes Sample properties Absorption due to defects Apparatus Spectrometers 106

X Table of contents 3.2.1.3.2 Cryostats 108 3.2.1.3.3 Window materials 108 3.2.1.4 Application to defect measurements 109 3.2.1.4.1 Local vibrational modes 109 3.2.1.4.2 Lifetime broadening 109 3.2.1.4.3 Temperature effects 109 3.

4 X Table of contents Cryostats Window materials Application to defect measurements Local vibrational modes Lifetime broadening Temperature effects Separation from intrinsic absorption Concentration calibration Mapping of concentration distributions 110 Figures for References for Luminescence (R. SAUER) Introduction Luminescence due to impurities and defects Temperature ränge Apparatus Excitation Cryostat and sample Spectrometer Detector Calibration Electronic-vibronic absorptions Photoluminescence excitation (PLE) Perturbation spectroscopy Time-resolved luminescence 118 Figures for References for Magnetic resonance methods (J. SCHNEIDER) Introduction Classification of defects Silicon Germanium III-V semiconductors Experimental techniques Conventional electron spin resonance (ESR) Electron nuclear double resonance (ENDOR) Optically detected magnetic resonance (ODMR) ODMR via absorption ODMR via luminescence 126 References for Analysis of extended defects (W. BERGHOLZ) Introductory remarks X-ray techniques Diffraction methods Basic principles Lattice constants measurements Point defect aggregates and other applications X-ray topography Basic principles Grown-in defects Process-induced defects Special applications Electron microscopy Transmission electron microscopy (TEM) Basic principles Microanalysis Specimen preparation 135

Table of Contents XI 3.4.2.1.3 Grown-in defects 136 3.4.2.1.4 Process-induced defects 136 3.4.2.1.5 Gettering 136 3.4.2.1.6 Interfaces 137 3.4.2.1.7 Special applications 137 3.4.2.2 Scanning electron microscopy (SEM) 137 3.

5 Table of Contents XI Grown-in defects Process-induced defects Gettering Interfaces Special applications Scanning electron microscopy (SEM) Basic principles Microanalysis Electrical methods Applications Etching techniques Basic principles Characteristic etch figures Detection of fast-diffusing metal impurities 140 Figures for References for Chemical analysis (H.-J. RATH) Survey of methods Description of methods Neutron activation analysis (NAA) Photon activation analysis Charged particle activation analysis (CPAA) Gas fusion analysis (GFA) Secondary ion mass spectrometry (SIMS) Spark source mass spectrometry (SSMS) Atomic absorption spectrometry (AAS) Voltammetry Rutherford ion backscattering spectrometry (RBS) Total reflection X-ray fluorescence analysis (TRXFA) Transmission electron microscopy (TEM) and energy dispersive X-ray analysis (EDAX) Ion scattering spectrometry (ISS) Auger electron spectroscopy (AES) Electron spectrometry for chemical analysis (ESCA) Gas chromatography (GC) 167 Figures for References of lmpurity and defect properties in group IV elements Diamond (C) Impurities (W. v. MÜNCH) Defects (W. v. MÜNCH) 174 Figures for and References for and Paramagnetic centers (C.A.J. AMMERLAAN) Introduction Nitrogen-related centers Acceptor-related centers Transition metal impurities Irradiation defects Ion implantation defects Miscellaneous centers 198 Figures for References for

XII Table of contents 4.2 Silicon (Si) 207 4.2.1 Solubility and segregation of impurities (M. SCHULZ) 207 4.2.1.1 Solid solubility 207 4.2.1.1.1 Definitions 207 4.2.1.1.2 Temperature dependence 207 4.

6 XII Table of contents 4.2 Silicon (Si) Solubility and segregation of impurities (M. SCHULZ) Solid solubility Definitions Temperature dependence Solubility data Distribution coefficient Definitions Temperature dependence Data on segregation and distribution coefficients 207 Figures for References for Diffusion of impurities (M. SCHULZ) Introduction Phenomenological description Temperature dependence Diffusion mechanisms Interstitial diffusion Vacancy mechanism Interstitialcy mechanism Substitutional-interstitial mechanism Surface effects Anomalous phosphorus diffusion Effect of drift fields Diffusion data Hydrogen, alkali, and earth alkali elements Acceptors Si-self-diffusion and other group IV elements Donors Oxygen and other chalcogenides Noble gases Transition metals Rare earth metals 249 Figures for References for Impurity levels (M. SCHULZ) Ionization energies 270 Figures for References for Pressure coefficients 310 Figures for References for Capture coefficients and cross-sections 312 Figures for References for Photoionization cross-sections 317 Figures for References for Excited bound states of acceptors and donors (R. SAUER) Acceptors of group III impurities Donors of group V impurities and Li Donors of group VI impurities Thermal donors (TDs): Oxygen-related defects Shallow thermal donors (STDs) Very shallow centers and deep transition metal defects 330 Figures for References for Photoluminescence properties of impurities and defects (R. SAUER) 338

Table of contents XIII 4.2.5.1 Excitons bound to neutral acceptors or donors 339 4.2.5.2 Excitonic luminescence due to defects 340 Figures for 4.2.5 354 References for 4.2.5 360 4.2.6 Paramagnetic centers in Silicon (C.

7 Table of contents XIII Excitons bound to neutral acceptors or donors Excitonic luminescence due to defects 340 Figures for References for Paramagnetic centers in Silicon (C.A.J. AMMERLAAN) Introduction Symmetry data of defect centers Electron paramagnetic resonance (EPR) data 368 Figures for References for Vibrational modes of impurities and defects (R. MURRAY, R.C. NEWMAN) Substitutional impurities Substitutional impurity complexes Oxygen Interstitial impurity complexes Irradiation defects Defect concentrations derived from the strengths of local vibrational mode absorption lines 385 Figures for References for Oxygen-related defects and microdefects (W. ZULEHNER) Classification of crystal defects Point defects Vacancies and interstitials Atom size effects of impurities Oxidation effects Carbon and oxygen Other impurities Aggregation phenomena Complex formation Homogeneous nucleation Heterogeneous nucleation Doping inhomogeneities Precipitation Microdefects Self-point microdefects (swirl defects) Oxygen-related microdefects Impurity microdefects not related to oxygen Oxidation-induced stacking faults Gettering and denuded zones 412 Figures for References for Germanium (Ge) Solubility and segregation of impurities (N.A. STOLWIJK) Solid solubility Definition Temperature dependence Distribution coefficient Definition Temperature dependence Experimental methods Solubility and segregation data 440 Figures for Diffusion of impurities (N.A. STOLWIJK) Introduction Phenomenological description Temperature dependence 451

XIV Table of contents 4.3.2.1.3 Literature survey 451 4.3.2.2 Diffusion mechanisms 451 4.3.2.2.1 Interstitial mechanism 451 4.3.2.2.2 Vacancy mechanism 451 4.3.2.2.3 Dissociative mechanism 452 4.3.2.3 Doping dependence 452 4.

8 XIV Table of contents Literature survey Diffusion mechanisms Interstitial mechanism Vacancy mechanism Dissociative mechanism Doping dependence Vacancy Charge states Electric field enhancement Pressure dependence Mass dependence Diffusion data 453 Figures for References for and Impurity levels (M.S. SKOLNICK) Shallow donors Group VI substitutional donors Shallow acceptors Deep centers Group II substitutional double acceptors Group I substitutional triple acceptors and related complexes Transition metals Deep levels introduced by diffusion of metallic elements Defect centers Capture cross sections (M.S. SKOLNICK) Photoionization cross sections (M.S. SKOLNICK) Deformation potentials (M.S. SKOLNICK) Luminescence ofbound excitions (M.S. SKOLNICK) Electron paramagnetic resonance (EPR) (M.S. SKOLNICK) Local vibrational modes (M.S. SKOLNICK) 479 Figures for References for Silicon carbide (SiC) (W. v. MÜNCH) Solubility of impurities Diffusion of impurities Impurity levels Defects 493 Figures of References for Impurity and defect properties in group III-V Compounds Gallium nitride (GaN) Shallow impurities (after D. BIMBERG, Vol. III/17a) Donors Acceptors Bound excitons 500 Figures for References for Deep defect states (A.R. PEAKER) 502 References for Gallium phosphide (GaP) Solubility and diffusion of impurities (A.F.W. WILLOUGHBY) 504 Figures for References for Vibrational modes of impurities and defects (R. MURRAY, R.C. NEWMAN) Isolated impurities Substitutional impurity complexes 506

Table of contents XV 5.2.2.3 Irradiation defects 507 Figures for 5.2.2 508 References for 5.2.2 510 5.2.3 Shallow impurities (after P.J. DEAN, Volume III/17a) 510 5.2.3.1 Introduction 510 5.2.3.2 Binding energies of donors 511 5.

9 Table of contents XV Irradiation defects 507 Figures for References for Shallow impurities (after P.J. DEAN, Volume III/17a) Introduction Binding energies of donors Splittings of IS donorground states Binding energies of acceptors Excited states of acceptors Deformation potential of impurity states Spin-orbit coupling in bound hole states Bound excitons Excitons bound to donors Excitons bound to acceptors Excitons bound to isoelectronic substituents and other neutral centers Transition lifetimes ESR and ENDOR data (after J. SCHNEIDER, Vol. III/17a) 520 Figures for References for Deep defects Defect levels (RA. PEAKER) Intrinsic or unidentified deep defect states Deep defect states induced by high-energy irradiation 528 References for Optical properties of deep defects (U. KAUFMANN) Luminescence bands Optical absorption bands 530 Figures for References for ESR, ENDOR, and ODMR data (J. SCHNEIDER) Phosphorus antisite P Ga P Phosphorus antisite PoaPaY Gallium vacancy Electron-irradiatedGaP:Fe 534 Figures for References for Transition metal impurities (B. CLERJAUD) Defect levels Energy levels Capture and emission data Excited states Optical properties Magnetic properties and electron spin resonance (ESR) 544 Figures for References for Rare earth impurities (H. ENNEN) Electrical activity Magnetic susceptibility Photoluminescence Irradiation effects 561 Figures for References for Gallium arsenide (GaAs) Solubility of impurities (A.F.W. WILLOUGHBY) Introduction Solubility data 566 Figures for References for

XVI Table of contents 5.3.2 Diffusion of impurities and defects (A.F.W. WILLOUGHBY) 568 5.3.2.0 Introduction 568 5.3.2.1 Self-diffusion 568 5.3.2.2 Diffusion of impurities 569 5.3.2.3 Diffusion of Zn in GaAs 570 Figures for 5.

10 XVI Table of contents Diffusion of impurities and defects (A.F.W. WILLOUGHBY) Introduction Self-diffusion Diffusion of impurities Diffusion of Zn in GaAs 570 Figures for References for Vibrational modes of impurities and defects (R. MURRAY, R.C. NEWMAN) Isolated impurities Substitutional impurity complexes Lithium complexes Irradiation defects Defect concentrations derived from strengths of local vibrational mode absorption lines 579 Figures for References for Shallow impurities and defects (B. HAMILTON) Shallow donors Introduction Chemical shifts Photoconductivity measurements Photoluminescence Shallow acceptors Ground State binding energies Acceptor excited states Bound exciton lifetimes Shallow defects and impurity complexes The ev photoluminescence lines Copper complexes ESR data for shallow defects (after J. SCHNEIDER, Vol. III/17a) 589 Figures for References for Deep defects Defect levels (A.R. PEAKER) Intrinsic or unidentified deep defect states Radiation-induced deep defect states 598 References for Optical properties of deep defects (U. KAUFMANN) Introductory remarks Luminescence bands in undoped semi-insulating GaAs Photoluminescence in n-type GaAs The EL2/As Ga absorption band Optical bands related to the 78/203 MeV acceptor 607 Figures for References for ESR, ENDOR, and ODMR data (J. SCHNEIDER) AsgrownGaAs Arsenic antisite Spin triplet centers Plastically deformed GaAs Fast-electron-irradiated GaAs Arsenic antisite and related defects Arsenic-vacancy-related defects Electron-irradiatedGaAs:Cr Neutron-irradiated GaAs Amorphous GaAs 621 Figures for References for

Table of Contents XVII 5.3.6 Transition metal impurities (B. CLERJAUD) 627 5.3.6.0 Introductory remarks 627 5.3.6.1 Defectlevels 627 5.3.6.1.1 Energy levels 627 5.3.6.1.2 Capture and emission data 629 5.

11 Table of Contents XVII Transition metal impurities (B. CLERJAUD) Introductory remarks Defectlevels Energy levels Capture and emission data Excited states Optical properties Magnetic properties and electron spin resonance (ESR) 634 Figures for References for Rare earth impurities (H. ENNEN) Solubility and diffusion Electrical activity Photoluminescence 654 Figures for References for Gallium antimonide (GaSb) Diffusion of impurities and defects (A.F.W. WILLOUGHBY) Self-diffusion Diffusion of impurities 659 Figures for References for Vibrational modes of impurities (R. MURRAY, R.C. NEWMAN) 661 References for Shallow impurities and defects (after D. BIMBERG, Vol. III/17a) Donors Acceptors Bound excitons 662 Figures for References for Deep defects (A.R. PEAKER) Deep defect states Radiation-induced deep defects states 666 References for Indium phosphide (InP) Diffusion of impurities and defects (A.F.W. WILLOUGHBY) Self-diffusion Diffusion of impurities 667 Figures for References for Vibrational modes of impurities (R. MURRY, R.C. NEWMAN) 669 References for Shallow impurities and defects (B. HAMILTON) Donor impurities General remarks Photoconductivity Photoluminescence Acceptor impurities General remarks Binding energies Photoluminescence Acceptor excited states ESR and ENDOR data (after J. SCHNEIDER, Vol. III/17a) 673 Figures for References for Deep impurities Deep defect states (H. GRIMMEISS) 677

XVIII Table of contents 5.5.4.1.1 Intrinsic or unidentified deep defect states 677 5.5.4.1.2 Radiation-induced deep defect states 678 Figures for 5.5.4.1 680 References for 5.5.4.1 681 5.5.4.2 Photoluminescence (U.

12 XVIII Table of contents Intrinsic or unidentified deep defect states Radiation-induced deep defect states 678 Figures for References for Photoluminescence (U. KAUFMANN) 681 Figures for References for ESR and ODMR data (J. SCHNEIDER) Phosphorus antisite Phosphorus vacancy Electron-irradiatedInP:Fe 683 Figures for References for Transition mctal impurities (B. CLERJAUD) Defect levels Energy levels Capture and emission data Excited states Optical properties Magnetic properties and electron spin resonance (ESR) 689 Figures for References for Rare earth impurities (H. ENNEN) Electrical activity Magnetic susceptibility Photoluminescence and optical spectrometry Magnetic resonance Irradiation effects 699 Figures for References for Indium arsenide (InAs) Solubility of impurities (A.F.W. WILLOUGHBY) 706 Figure for References for Diffusion of impurities and defects (A.F.W. WILLOUGHBY) Self-diffusion Diffusion of impurities 707 Figures for References for Vibrational modes of impurities (R. MURRAY, R.C. NEWMAN) 708 References for Shallow impurities (after D. BIMBERG, Vol. III/17a) 708 References for Deep defect states (H. GRIMMEISS) 709 References for Transition metal impurities (B. CLERJAUD) Defect levels Magnetic properties 709 References for Indium antimonide (InSb) Diffusion of impurities and defects (A.F.W. WILLOUGHBY) Self-diffusion Diffusion of impurities 710 Figures for References for Vibrational modes of impurities and defects (R. MURRAY, R.C. NEWMAN) 713 References for

Table of contents XIX 5.7.3 Shallow impurities (afterd. BIMBERG, Vol. III/l7a) 713 5.7.3.1 Donors 713 5.7.3.2 Acceptors 713 Figure for 5.7.3 714 References for 5.7.3 715 5.7.4 Deep impurities (H.

13 Table of contents XIX Shallow impurities (afterd. BIMBERG, Vol. III/l7a) Donors Acceptors 713 Figure for References for Deep impurities (H. GRIMMEISS) Intrinsic or unidentified deep defect states Radiation-induced defect states 717 Figure for References for Transition metal impurities (B. CLERJAUD) Energy levels Excited states 718 References for Boron nitrlde (BN) Deep defect states (H. GRIMMEISS) 719 References for Boron phosphlde (BP) Deep defect states (H. GRIMMEISS) 720 Figures for References for Impurity and defect properties in ternary Compounds Gallium arsenide phosphide (GaAs, XP X ) Solubility and diffusion of impurities (A.F.W. WILLOUGHBY) 721 Figures for References for Deep defect states (H. GRIMMEISS) Intrinsic or unidentified defect states Irradiation-induced defect states 725 Figures for References for Transition metal impurities (B. CLERJAUD) Defect levels Energy levels Capture and emission data Optical properties 729 Figures for References for Gallium arsenide antimonide (GaAs! xsb x ) Deep defect states (H. GRIMMEISS) Intrinsic or unidentified defect states Irradiation-induced deep defect states 731 Figures for References for Indium arsenide phosphide (InAs, - X P X ) Solubility and diffusion of impurities (A.F.W. WILLOUGHBY) 733 Figures for Reference for Optical and electronic properties (B. CLERJAUD) 734 Reference for GaUium aluminum arsenide (Ga, xal x As) Solubility and diffusion of impurities (A.F.W. WILLOUGHBY) 735 Figures for Reference for

XX Table of contents 6.4.2 Defect levels (A.R. PEAKER) 736 6.4.2.1 Intrinsic or unidentified deep defect states 736 6.4.2.2 DX centers 738 6.4.2.3 Irradiation-induced defects 739 Figures for 6.4.2 740 References for 6.

14 XX Table of contents Defect levels (A.R. PEAKER) Intrinsic or unidentified deep defect states DX centers Irradiation-induced defects 739 Figures for References for Transition metal impurities (B. CLERJAUD) Defect levels Energy levels Excited states Optical properties 743 Figures for References for Gallium aluminum antimonide (Ga] ^xal x Sb) Deep defect states (A.R. PEAKER) 744 References for Gallium indium arsenide (Ga] xin x As) Solubility and diffusion of impurities (A.F.W. WILLOUGHBY) 744 Figures for References for Defect levels (B. CLERJAUD) Energy levels Capture and emission data Optical properties (B. CLERJAUD) 746 Figures for References for and Gallium indium phosphide (Ga^n, XP) Defect levels (B. CLERJAUD) Energy levels Capture and emission data 747 Figure for Optical properties (B. CLERJAUD) 748 References for and Impurity and defect properties of quaternary Compounds Gallium indium arsenide phosphide (GaJni-jASyP!-,,) Energy levels (B. CLERJAUD) Optical properties (B. CLERJAUD) 749 Figure for References for and Subject index 750

LANDOLT-BORNSTEIN. Zahlenwerte und Funktionen aus Naturwissenschaften und Technik. Neue Serie. Gesamtherausgabe: K.-H. Hellwege

LANDOLT-BORNSTEIN. Zahlenwerte und Funktionen aus Naturwissenschaften und Technik. Neue Serie. Gesamtherausgabe: K.-H. Hellwege LANDOLT-BORNSTEIN Zahlenwerte und Funktionen aus Naturwissenschaften und Technik Neue Serie Gesamtherausgabe: K.-H. Hellwege Gruppe III: Kristall- und Festkörperphysik Band 17 Halbleiter Herausgeber: O.