A Typology of Farmers' Drought Management

Transcription

1 Americn-Eursin J. Agric. & Environ. Sci., 7 (4): , 2010 ISSN IDOSI Pulictions, 2010 A Typology of Frmers' Drought Mngement Mrzieh Keshvrz, Eztollh Krmi nd Ali Akr Kmgre-Hghighi 1 Deprtment of Agriculturl Extension, College of Agriculture, Shirz University, Shirz, Irn 2 Deprtment of Wter Engineering, College of Agriculture, Shirz University, Shirz, Irn Astrct: Drought is slow-onset nturl disster tht hs widespred consequences. Plnning t mcro nd meso levels often ssumes tht frmers rect to nd mnge drought in similr wys. If this ssumption of homogeneity is incorrect, the potentil effectiveness of drought mitigtion efforts is likely to e dngerously inhiited. This reserch investigted the vlidity of the homogeneity ssumption mong Irnin frmers. More specificlly, it exmined whether frmers use different strtegies to mitigte drought nd, if so, whether typology to clssify their mngement pproches cn e developed. A multistge, strtified rndom smple (n=258) of frmers in Frs province who suffered drought ws surveyed. The reserch identified tht different strtegies were used nd tht drought mngement typology comprising three types of drought mngement could e constructed: (i) technicl (TDM) (ii) psycho-economic (PDM) nd (iii) integrted (IDM). These three drought mngement pproches were discussed nd recommendtions mde to improving drought mitigtion nd prepredness. Key words: Drought mngement Typology Impct Frmers Irn INTRODUCTION scientific nd policy communities explins, to some extent, the lck of progress in drought prepredness in Drought is norml, recurrent climte feture [1] most prts of the world. The lck of precise nd which, if dly mnged cn led to loss of crop universlly ccepted definition dds to the confusion: production, food shortges nd, for mny, strvtion [2]. when does the lck of rin constitute drought nd how It origintes from deficiency of precipittion over n do we mesure the degree of severity [7] Drought is extended (lthough not indefinite) period, lthough its difficult to define ecuse its oundries re uncler chrcteristics vry significntly from one region to nd so much depends on context nd loction [8]. nother [3]. However, drought should not e viewed Vrious scientific disciplines define drought differently merely s physicl phenomenon; it hs profound with the criticl vriles eing the intended use of the impcts on society, socio-economic fctors contriute to wter nd the time-frme [9]. The four min disciplinry the socil experience of drought nd socil ctivities definitions of drought re meteorologicl, griculturl, my lessen or excerte the physicl spects of drought hydrologicl nd socioeconomic [10]. The meteorologicl [3,4]. Prticulrly over the lst decde, unsustinle definition is sed on mesurement of precipittion development nd improper use of nturl resources hve tht is some percentge elow norml [1,10]. As regions incresed vulnerility to drought in some countries, to differ gretly in climte, this definition is very loction the extent tht even smll normlity in climtic specific. A hydrologicl drought is defined y the levels conditions hs the potentil to crete disster in of surfce nd susurfce wter in the system [10]. drought-stricken regions [5]. Agriculturl drought refers to time when the Mny consider drought to e the most complex ut mount of wter in the soil no longer meets the the lest understood of ll nturl hzrds, ffecting more needs of prticulr crop [1]. Socioeconomic drought people thn ny other [6]. Yet, for ll the dmge it refers to situtions where the reduction precipittion cuses, it gets precious little pulic ttention. Of ll hs impct on the welleing of the ffected community, nturl dissters, it is the most grdul nd hrd to in effect s distortion in the supply nd demnd for predict. Confusion out its chrcteristics within the goods nd services. There is flow-on ripple effect from Corresponding Author: Eztollh Krmi, Deprtment of Agriculturl Extension, College of Agriculture, Shirz University, Shirz, Irn 415

2 Am-Eurs. J. Agric. & Environ. Sci., 7 (4): , 2010 the physicl wter shortge tht cn e trced through economic systems [11] nd ffects the generl pulic through n imlnce in supply nd demnd [1,10]. The end point of drought episode is difficult to determine. The extent of its impct is criticlly tied to underlying socil nd economic vulnerility, much more thn for sudden hzrds, such s erthqukes. These ttriutes contriute to the rich development of conceptul frmeworks out drought, especilly drought vulnerility. The Potentil Impcts of Drought: The impcts of drought re diverse lthough cn e rodly clssified s eing economic, environmentl nd socil. They cn e direct s well s indirect (first order, second-order) [12]. In societies where griculture is the primry economic ctivity, the direct, or first-order, impcts of drought tke the form of decrese food production vi reduction in cultivted re nd/or crop yield. Employment opportunities re reduced ecuse of the diminished need for weeding, hrvesting nd other griculturl work nd ecuse frmers seek to sve money y reducing their expenditure nd frm inputs. Concurrent with reducing the production, grin nd other food prices usully rise rpidly during nd fter drought [13,14]. Decresed food production, norml increses in prices nd the lck of vilility of jos ll ct to reducing the ccess to food of rurl people, especilly smll frmers nd lndless lourers [2]. In grrin countries, crop djustments usully constitute the focl point of risk version strtegies dopted y victims of nturl hzrds t the household level [15,16]. However, if people elieve they cn do nothing to reducing crop losses, they will tke no ction [17]. Pul [2] concluded tht drought victims in Bngldesh were often oliged to orrow money nd food nd/or sell their lnd nd other elongings. At the community level, friends, neighors, reltives nd more ffluent memers of the locl community my id drought victims y providing food, csh nd lons. People s ctions often excerte the impct of drought. The resultnt economic nd environmentl impct nd personl hrdship experienced following recent droughts in oth developing nd developed countries hve underscored the vulnerility of ll societies to this "nturl" hzrd [3]. Disster reserchers hve frequently rgued tht poor people re more vulnerle to the consequences of nturl hzrds thn those with greter economic resources [18]. Drought Mngement: The impcts of drought, like those of other hzrds, cn e reduced through mitigtion nd prepredness [7]. Drought mngement is crried out t the mcro, meso nd micro levels. At the mcro level, ntionl governments pln nd execute progrms, lws nd regultions to mitigte drought, often seeking interntionl support. They re responsile for minimizing the hrdship y orgnizing relief work, providing lons nd generting employment schemes for victims [19]. At the meso level, locl governments try to mitigte drought with regrd to ntionl opportunities nd locl chllenges. Frmers re in the forefront of drought mngement nd suffer most from the consequences. Therefore, the micro-level mngement tht is wht frmers do with regrd to drought is of gret importnce. Viljoen et l., [20] found tht socil, institutionl, culturl, religious, economic, environmentl, hydrologic, geogrphic, eductionl nd politicl fctors re ll importnt in developing effective drought mngement policies nd strtegies. Wtts [21] rgued tht vulnerility nd response to drought re likely to reflect qulities inherent in socil systems. Externl responses to potentil crises must cknowledge the importnt ut culturlly vrile role of these intrinsic fctors in mediting the implementtion nd effectiveness of locl coping strtegies [22]. In the pst, drought mngement hs een lurred nd often politicized due to confusion in defining nd nlyzing the cuses nd effects of drought. Efforts to mitigte droughts require cler understnding of when they occur nd the distinction etween mngele droughts, where improved lnd mngement cn ssist in mitigtion nd unmngele drought, when coping mechnisms outside the mnged lndscpe re required [23]. White [24] identified three types of humn djustment or response to the risks of nturl hzrds, side from simply ccepting the loss. One response is to spred the urden more widely with pulic disster relief progrms or disster insurnce for exmple, progrms insuring frmers ginst crop yield losses in cse of drought. The second type of djustment is to modify the hzrd event. In the cse of drought, constructing wter storge nd conveynce structures is the stndrd modifiction to reduce drought impcts. The third type of response is to reduce humn vulnerility. In the cse of drought, policies to reduce vulnerility include chnges in rules nd lws governing wter mngement [25]. 416

3 Am-Eurs. J. Agric. & Environ. Sci., 7 (4): , 2010 Drought mngement t the mcro nd meso levels tht one wy of theorizing the diversity mongst frmers remins chllenge nd hs een criticized for its is the Styles of Frming pproch originlly developed y ineffectiveness. Severl ostcles hve een identified, vn der Ploeg. Although there is disgreement regrding including lck of full understnding, low priority, how frming styles reserch could e used to improve indequte finncil or humn resources, d extension, there is generl elief tht such reserch communiction etween levels of government, would e useful for extension [31-34]. precedence of inefficient short-term relief progrms Both qulittive nd quntittive methods hve een over long-term resource mngement nd indequte used to identify the potentil frming styles tht exist in science [26,27,8]. frming community. Howden nd Vncly [35] Regrdless of the qulity of drought mngement t conducted focus groups to identify the frming styles the mcro nd meso levels, mitigtion cnnot e relized mongst Austrlin frmers. However, fter considerle unless effective micro level mngement is crried out y immersion in the field, they concluded tht the focus drought victims. They utilize vrious strtegies to reduce group methodology ws potentilly misleding nd the first-order effects of the hzrd; for exmple, y therefore resorted to constructing resercher- defined resowing crops to offset the reduction crop re nd (or etic) typology [33]. Firwether nd Klonsky [32] irrigting to incresing yield. Without such djustments, rgued tht Q methodology is n pproprite method for they will experience lower-thn-norml food production, identifying frming styles. Hyti nd Krmi [36] used which my threten their food security. They re often survey reserch with open-ended questions nd then compelled to orrow money or sell their lnd, household undertook content nlysis to identify the typology of goods nd/or livestock, often t depressed prices, in order cuses of poverty mong Irnin frmers. Krmi [37] to uy food. At this time, they my strt to consume wild conducted cluster nlysis to clssify frmers into food tht they would not otherwise normlly et, thus homogenous groups in order to study the excerting the impct of the drought on iodiversity. ppropriteness of their decision regrding selection of These prctices provide n erly wrning of impending irrigtion methods. fmine nd indicte the need for the ntionl government Frmers re clerly t the forefront of drought nd NGOs to moilize the supply of dditionl food to mngement, suffer most from the consequences of distriute to the ffected people. Thus, n integrtive drought nd hve the gretest influence on its mitigtion. frmework is essentil to link the responses tken t Developing typology of frmer drought mngement vrious levels to mitigte the effects of drought strtegies would e useful heuristic for understnding effectively [2]. drought mitigtion nd in thinking out improving It is evident tht frmers re proctively doing drought mngement t different levels. However, one of something for their survivl in times of dissters such s the conscious or unconscious ssumptions mong field drought. The rry of inititives shows tht community workers nd locl nd ntionl mitigtion experts is tht livelihoods depend on numer of ctivities, cpilities drought hs the sme impct on ll frmers nd their nd ssets oth mteril nd socil. McKenzie [28] found rections to drought re similr. The im of this study ws tht households djusted to crisis y reducing to investigte the vlidity of this ssumption mong expenditure on durle nd nonessentil items in order to Irnin frmers. More specificlly, it exmines whether purchse sic food items. The postponement of hving frmers use different strtegies to mitigte drought nd, if children is nother strtegy. One wy to counterct flling so, whether typology to clssify their mngement wges is to increse the numer of hours worked. Finlly, pproches cn e developed. nother survivl strtegy is for households to reduce outgoings (such s expenditure nd lon repyments) nd Method: A pre pilot study, field oservtion nd in-depth to increse incoming trnsfers, such s finncil support interviews with frmers were used to develop the from rod. In effect, interntionl risk-shring hs questionnire tht collected dt for this study. The fce sustituted for the inility of domestic risk-shring [29]. vlidity of the questionnire ws pproved y pnel of experts. It ws field-tested in pilot study tht Typologies of Frmers: Although the presumption of included 30 frmers from eight villges, which were not homogeneity is prevlent in the policy community, rurl the villges tht were ultimtely selected for the study. sociologists hve long dvocted for n wreness of the Cronch lph reliility coefficient for socil impct, diversity or heterogeneity of frmers. Vncly [30] rgued ttitude towrd control, impct on griculture, impct on 417

4 Am-Eurs. J. Agric. & Environ. Sci., 7 (4): , 2010 Drought intensity Medium Severe Very Severe Rndomly selected counties in this study Fig. 1: Clssifiction of drought intensities cross Frs province [38] household economy, impct on environment nd support Counties with less then 20, 20-30, 30-45, nd over 60 services scles were 0.69, 0.53, 0.92, 0.63, 0.62 nd 0.88, percent reduction in precipittion were clssified s respectively. The questionnire ws revised sed on the experiencing nil, mild, moderte, severe nd disstrous pilot study nd used in the survey to collect dt for this drought conditions, respectively. reserch. Popultion nd Smple: Frmers of Frs province who Study Are: This study ws conducted in Frs suffered drought were the trget popultion. A multistge, province, one of the 30 provinces of Irn. Locted in the strtified rndom smpling method ws used. At the first 2 south of Irn, Frs province hs n re of 122,400 km, stge, the 17 counties were clssified into three strt with its regionl cpitl city eing Shirz. The popultion using Sufi's [38] scheme. A proportionl smple ws then of the province is over 3 million, of whom out 42 rndomly selected from ech of the three drought strt. percent reside in rurl res. The Zgros Mountins In ech rndomly select county, proportionl numer of stretch from the northwest to the southest, dividing Dehestn (sucounties) ws rndomly selected. A the province into distinct geogrphicl regions. proportionl smple of Deh (s) (villges) ws then Since the ltest division, the province now contins rndomly selected from ech Dehestn. In the finl stge, 17 counties (Shhrestn). There re three distinct climtic rndom smple of frmers ws selected in ech Deh. regions 1) the mountinous re of the north nd The numer of frmers selected in ech Deh depended on northwest which hve modertely cold winters nd mild the numer of household in tht villge. In ll, four summers 2) the centrl region, with reltively riny, mild counties nd 32 villges were included in the smple. winters nd hot dry summers nd 3) the south nd The finl smple consisted of 258 frmers, including 78, southest region, which hs moderte winters nd very 118 nd 62 frmers from counties with "disstrous", hot summers. "severe" nd "moderte" drought, respectively. Frs is one of the drought-prone res of Irn nd experienced severe drought etween 1998 nd Vriles nd Mesurements In 2004, when the dt for this study were collected, A Description of the Importnt Vriles Used in this frmers were still suffering from the ongoing Reserch Is Presented Below: consequences of tht drought. Sufi s [38] drought Frm Size (Hectres): Totl hectres of griculturl lnd clssifiction of Frs counties ws used in the smpling mnged y frmer Income (Tomn): totl nnul income design of this study (Fig. 1). Sufi [38] used of frm household from griculturl nd nongriculturl meteorologicl definition in his drought clssifiction. sources. 418

5 Am-Eurs. J. Agric. & Environ. Sci., 7 (4): , 2010 Loss of Income (Percent): Frmers perception of reserch investigted the similrity/dissimilrity of percentge loss in income due to drought. drought mngement efforts mong Irnin frmers using cluster nlysis. Primry dt nlysis indicted tht k- Socil Impct (Scle): The impct of the drought on the mens cluster nlysis, in which the numer of clusters is household s socil life, including psychologicl stresses, determined in dvnce, ws the most pproprite helth threts, socil prticiption, conflict mong pproch for this study. The independent vriles used villgers nd food consumption. The scle rnged from 8 in cluster nlysis were consequences of drought to 40, with high score indicting severe impct. (griculturl, generl economic, environmentl nd hydrologic); ppliction of dptive strtegies Attitude Towrd Control (Scle): Frmers ttitudes out (technicl nd psycho-economic) ttitudes towrd their ility to control drought nd its consequences, drought (socil impct nd controllility) use of support including such dimensions s effectiveness of coping services (ccess to nd degree of prticiption in, ttempts, cceptnce s destiny (i.e. ftlism, nothing cn extension drought progrms); nd fluctution in income e done out it) nd existence of effective wys to nd cultivtion re (owned, rented lnd, etc.). control drought. The scle rnged from 7 to 35, with The cluster nlysis reveled the following high score indicting confidence tht drought cn e drought- mngement typology sed on frmers controlled. dptive strtegies: Impct on Agriculture (Scle): Frmers ttitudes Technicl Drought Mngement (TDM): Aout 17 covering such dimensions s impct on yield, soil fertility, percent of frmers used this mngement pproch, which erosion, pests nd diseses, orchrd production, is mrked y predominntly technicl strtegies. production costs nd niml production. The scle rnged from 0 to 100, with high scores indicting severe impct. Psycho-economic Drought Mngement (PDM): Reltively limited griculturl resources forced these Impct on Household Economy (Scle): Frmers frmers to look for other mngement pproches; perceptions of the drought s effect on the price of lnd, 18 percent predominntly pplied psycho-economic selling ssets, unemployment nd the price nd receipt of dptive strtegies in their struggle to mnge drought. supports, such s permission to dig wells. The scle rnged from 0 to 100, with high scores indicting severe Integrted Drought Mngement (IDM): 65 percent of impct. frmers comined technicl nd psycho-economic strtegies to mnge drought. Impct on Environment (Scle): Respondents ttitudes Adptive drought-mngement strtegies studied in towrd the impct of drought on wild plnts nd nimls, this reserch were identified y conducting indepth ir pollution nd wter qulity. The scle rnged from 0 to interviews with frmers, field oservtion nd literture 100, with high scores indicting severe impct. review. In ll, 32 dptive strtegies were identified nd clssified y experts s eing either technicl or Support Services (Scle): Mesured whether psycho-economic (Tle 1). The drought mngement drought-ffected frmers received government id, pproch pplied y frmer is function of his drought-relted lons, support to construct check dms knowledge, resources nd host of other fctors. The or cnls or to dig wells, crop insurnce nd support from key ppliction of the ove finding is tht frmers' fmily nd friends. The scle consisted of 6 items nd mngement of drought is not homogenous nd tht ny rnged etween 0 nd 1. mitigtion pln tht ignores this typology is likely to fil. A more detiled description of the typology is presented RESULTS AND DISCUSSION in the next sections. Mcro- nd meso-level plnning often ssumes tht Anlysis of Technicl Drought Mngement frmers' rection to nd mngement of, drought is (TDM Tle 1): For the group of frmers who pplied homogenous. If this ssumption is flse, the effectiveness TDM, psycho-economic dptive strtegies re of limited of drought mitigtion efforts is likely to e impired. This use. Even if they resort to them, they consider them to 419

6 Am-Eurs. J. Agric. & Environ. Sci., 7 (4): , 2010 Tle 1: Adptive strtegies used y frmers in the Technicl Drought Mngement (TDM) group Adptive strtegies Frmers using the prctice (%) Priority of use (rnk) Effectiveness (%) Priority of effectiveness (rnk) Deepening irrigtion well Prying Reducing cultivtion Weeding Decresing length of furrows Selling livestock Reducing run-off Digging deeper well Using drought-resistnt vrieties Leveling lnd Prcticing deficit irrigtion Prcticing wtershed Purchsing extr wter Mnging irrigtion time Improving wter conveynce system Avoiding second crop Digging shllow well Migrting (of household memers) Constructing wter reservoir Lining Cnls Constructing new Cnls Chnging crop pttern (drought-resistnt) Using portle wter supply Finding second jo Producing windrek Using mulch Chnging irrigtion system Selling lnds Using conservtion tillge Minimizing tillge Mixing crops Reusing wste wter Renting lnd Psycho-economic doptive strtegies e ineffective. Among the 15 dptive strtegies most improving the wter conveynce system. This group did frequently used y this group, only two were psycho- not mix crops, reuse wste wter, or rent lnd s economic (prying nd selling livestock) nd they were drought-mitigtion strtegies nd less thn 5 percent tried viewed s hving limited impct (effectiveness rnk ws finding second jo, creting windreks, using mulch, 23 nd 25, respectively) on drought mitigtion. This group chnging the irrigtion system, selling lnd nd using hs reltively more technicl knowledge nd resources. conservtion tillge. Anlysis of its communiction ehvior indicted tht it Frmers were sked to pprise the effectiveness of rrely uses griculturl extension services nd depends dptive drought mitigtion strtegies. The Spermn on personl experiences nd other frmers for informtion correltion coefficient etween priority of use nd priority nd dvice. of effectiveness of drought mitigtion strtegies ws The dptive strtegies with the highest priority not sttisticlly significnt (r=0.18, Sig.=0.32). This finding included deepening irrigtion wells, prying, reducing is interesting ecuse it indictes tht frmers in this cultivtion, weeding nd decresing length of furrows. group were not using the dptive strtegies they Adptive strtegies with use priority rnging from perceived s most effective to cope with drought. 6 to 15 included selling livestock, reducing runoff, Constructing reservoir, mnging irrigtion time, digging deeper wells, using drought-resistnt vrieties, constructing new cnls, chnging the irrigtion system leveling lnd, prcticing deficit irrigtion nd wtershed, nd using drought-resistnt vrieties were rnked 1 to 5 purchsing extr wter, mnging irrigtion time nd in effectiveness, while the priority of use of these 420

7 Am-Eurs. J. Agric. & Environ. Sci., 7 (4): , 2010 Tle 2: Adptive strtegies used y frmers in the Psycho-economic Drought Mngement (PDM) group Adptive strtegies Frmers using the prctice (%) Priority of use (rnk) Effectiveness (%) Priority of effectiveness (rnk) Prying Selling livestock Finding second jo Migrting (household memers) Reducing cultivtion Prcticing deficit irrigtion Deepening irrigtion well Avoiding second crop Decresing length of furrows Weeding Selling lnds Digging shllow well Reducing run-off Purchsing extr wter Improving wter conveynce system Using portle wter supply Chnging irrigtion system Lining cnls Constructing wter reservoir Using mulch Chnging crop pttern (drought-resistnt) Mixing crops Using conservtion tillge Minimizing tillge Using drought-resistnt vrieties Leveling lnd Mnging irrigtion time Constructing new cnls Prcticing wtershed Digging deeper well Reusing wste wter Producing windrek Renting lnd Psycho-economic doptive strtegies prctices ws 19, 14, 21, 27.5 nd 9, respectively. Note tht the priority of effectiveness for the five most frequently use prctices were etween 12 nd 28. The fct tht frmers use prctices tht they know re not effective while using prctices tht they pprise s effective less frequently requires further ttention. Drought mitigtion in Irn is sed on crisis mngement. During the crisis, the resources of oth frmers nd government shrink. Therefore, some of the prctices the frmers pprised s effective (e.g., constructing reservoir, chnging the irrigtion system, improving the wter conveynce system) require reltively high investment, which is impossile in times of crisis. Crisis mngement is not lso conducive to dopting prctices tht require long-term plnning (e.g., drought-resistnt vrieties). The reson for frequent use of ineffective strtegies (deepening irrigtion wells, prying, reducing cultivtion, etc.) is tht they respond in the short-term nd do not require lrge investment. Prying rnks second in priority of use, while its effectiveness is rnked 28. Frmers ttriute the ineffectiveness of pryer to their lck of fith. Anlysis of Psycho-economic Drought Mngement (PDM Tle 2): Among the PDM group, the four most frequently used strtegies were prying, selling livestock, finding second jo nd migrting. The dptive strtegies with use priority rnging from 5 to 10 were technicl, including reducing cultivtion, prcticing deficit irrigtion, deepening the irrigtion well, voiding second plnting, decresing the length of furrows nd weeding nd they were used much less frequently thn the psycho-economic strtegies. Thirteen of the drought prctices were not pplied y ny frmers in this group. 421

8 Am-Eurs. J. Agric. & Environ. Sci., 7 (4): , 2010 Tle 3: Adptive strtegies used y frmers in the Integrted Drought Mngement (IDM) group Adptive strtegies Frmers using the prctice (%) Priority of use (rnk) Effectiveness (%) Priority of effectiveness (rnk) Prying Reducing cultivtion Decresing length of furrows Deepening irrigtion well Selling livestock Weeding Finding second jo Migrting (household memers) Prcticing deficit irrigtion Using drought-resistnt vrieties Reducing run-off Avoiding second crop Digging shllow well Leveling lnd Improving wter conveynce system Purchsing extr wter Constructing wter reservoir Prcticing wtershed Digging deeper well Selling lnd Mnging irrigtion time Chnging crop pttern (drought-resistnt) Constructing new Cnls Lining cnls Using mulch Chnging irrigtion system Producing windrek Renting lnd Using portle wter supply Minimizing tillge Reusing wste wter Mixing crops Using conservtion tillge Psycho-economic doptive strtegies Another striking difference etween the PDM group, 40 percent re psycho-economic nd 60 percent nd the other two groups ws strong significnt technicl. The use of prying, selling livestock, finding correltion (r=0.75, Sig.=0.0001) etween priority of use second jo nd migrting rnked 1, 5, 7 nd 8, nd effectiveness of prctices. These frmers re respectively, while the use of technicl dptive using prctices tht they elieve re effective. For strtegies, including reducing cultivtion, decresing exmple, the use rnk for prying, selling livestock, length of furrows, deepening the irrigtion well, weeding, finding second jo nd migrting ws 1 to 4 nd prcticing deficit irrigtion nd using drought-resistnt their effectiveness rnk ws 9, 10.5, 3 nd 4, respectively. vrieties, ws rnked 2, 3, 4, 6, 9 nd 10, respectively. The However, two of the prctices pprised s most IDM group pplied more dptive strtegies thn effective - improving the wter conveynce system nd the PDM group. The non significnt correltion constructing wter reservoir (rnked 1 nd 2) - were (r=-0.09 Sig.=0.61) etween priority of use nd priority of seldom used. effectiveness indicted tht the IDM group did not use the prctices they viewed s most efficient. In this regrd, Anlysis of Integrted Drought Mngement their ehvior is similr to the TDM group nd different (IDM Tle 3): Aout 65 percent of frmers used from the PDM group. These frmers rnked the lnce of technicl nd psycho-economic strtegies to effectiveness of improving the wter conveynce system, mitigte drought, mking it the most populr pproch. using drought-resistnt vrieties, mnging irrigtion Among the 10 dptive strtegies most used y this time, chnging the irrigtion system nd constructing new 422

9 Am-Eurs. J. Agric. & Environ. Sci., 7 (4): , 2010 Tle 4: Comprison of frmers' chrcteristics with regrd to their drought- mngement typology Drought Mngement Typology Vriles IDM TDM PDM F P Age (yer) Fmily size Eduction (yer) Frm size (hectre) Loss of income (percent) Socil impct (scle) Attitude towrd control (scle) Impct on griculture (scle) Impct on household economy (scle) Impct on environment (scle) c Support services (scle) In ech row, mens followed y the sme letters do not differ significntly (LSD P>0.05) For description of vriles nd their mesurement, see section 2.3 cnls s 1 to 5, while their use ws rnked 15, 10, 21.5, 26 The TDM group reported significntly lower level nd 23, respectively. The effectiveness of five frequently of income loss due to drought (39.3 percent) thn the IDM used prctices-prying, cultivting less lnd, reducing the (57.3 percent) nd PDM (61.0 percent) groups. This length of furrows, deepening the irrigtion well nd finding cn e interpreted in two wys. First, it my selling livestock - were rnked 23.5, 29, 16, 28 nd 30, indicte tht TDM pproches re more effective in respectively. preventing income loss. Second, the IDM nd PDM groups my pursue psycho-economic strtegies ecuse Comprison of Drought-mngement Typology Groups of their greter loss of income. A scle ws used to (Tle 4): The first question rised ws whether the type mesure the socil impct of drought on frm households, of drought mngement preferred ws relted to including such vriles s psychologicl fctors, helth, drought severity. The findings did not ssocite sic needs, socil prticiption nd socil reltions. The typology with severity the three types were distriuted scle vried etween 8 nd 40, with 40 indicting reltively similrly mong levels of drought severity disstrous impct. The results indicted tht drought hd (Chi-squre=8.78 Sig.=0.067). significntly lower socil impct on the TDM ( =26.3) The second ctegory of questions ddressed the group thn the IDM ( =30.8) nd PDM ( =32.0) groups. differences etween frmers who pursued different This finding is consistent with the findings on income drought mngement pproches. Frmers in the IDM loss nd lnd ownership. The IDM nd PDM groups, who group were significntly younger thn those with TDM hve less lnd nd lose more income, re expected to nd PDM pproches. The men ges of IDM, TDM nd pprise the impct of drought s more severe. Frmers' PDM frmers were 49.7, 53.9 nd 53.8, respectively. The ttitudes out the possiility of controlling drought re findings lso indicted no significnt difference in fmily hypothesized to predict their decisions out coping nd size cross drought mngement types, which runs the types of drought mngement pproch they dopt. counter to populr ssumption. The PDM group The scle developed to mesure controllility rnged ( =2.0 yers) hd significntly fewer yers of eduction etween 7 nd 35, with high score indicting confidence thn the IDM ( =3.7 yers) nd TDM ( =4.3 yers). The in chieving control. The IDM ( =25.5) group hd frm size of TDM group ( =14.7 h) ws significntly significntly stronger confidence tht drought could e lrger thn IDM ( =8.8 h) nd PDM ( =9.1 h) groups, controlled thn the TDM ( =22.7) nd PDM ( =21.1) which explins this group s primry relince on technicl groups. strtegies. Access to more lnd enles them to solve Drought hd significntly greter impct on frmers their prolems with limited use of externl resources even during drought, while the other two groups depend to greter extent on psycho-economic doptive strtegies. in the IDM ( =74.9) thn the PDM ( =70.7) group. The TDM group did not differ significntly from the other two in terms of the impct on griculturl production. 423

10 Am-Eurs. J. Agric. & Environ. Sci., 7 (4): , 2010 All groups perceived the impct on the household Provide technicl nd economic support services to economy s high ut differed significntly in their empower frmers to cope with drought, especilly perceptions of environmentl impct. The PDM ( =77.8) drought-relted credit nd lons nd wter group perceived drought to hve the most severe impct conservtion projects. on the environment followed y the IDM ( =73.5). The Provide the necessry inputs to help frmers reduce TDM group ( =66.0) felt tht drought s impct on the the consequences of drought nd e etter prepred environment ws less negtive. for future drought Frmers in ll three groups seldom used support Consider tht griculturl production is the primry services, such s government id nd low-interest lons source of survivl for frmers in this group during nd noted tht their ccess to drought- relted griculturl drought. extension progrms ws very limited. Only 13 percent of frmers in the IDM group indicted tht they hd ccess The PDM group depends predominntly on to griculturl extension progrms, while this indictor psycho-economic dptive strtegies to mitigte drought. dropped to 0.02 percent for the TDM nd PDM groups. For more effective drought mngement mcro- nd meso-scle drought plnning should provide: CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS Trining in nongriculturl jos; frmers in this Brriers to effective drought prepredness nd group depend on second jos nd migrtion to cope mitigtion re mnifold. A filure to link locl-level with the consequences of drought nd lck of cpcities to ntionl-level plnning nd implementtion trining limits their opportunities. continues to chrcterize most instnces of drought New jo opportunities in drought-prone res. mngement. Outsiders' (mcro nd meso levels) imperfect Specil drought reserch nd extension progrms understnding of locl-level (micro) responses influences tht stisfy the needs of those memers of frm wht hppens efore, during nd fter droughts nd, households who sty on the frm hence, the policy prescriptions they dvocte. This study Wter conservtion prctices nd support services found tht the ssumptions tht drought hs the sme tht re pproprite to frmers in this group. impct on ll frmers nd tht their rections re similr, were flse. On the contrry, frmers use different With regrd to IDM group, promoting strtegies tht mngement pproches to mitigte drought, which cn they perceive to e effective is recommended: improving e clssified ccording to following typology: wter conveynce systems, mking drought-resistnt vrieties ville, mnging irrigtion time, chnging Technicl Drought Mngement (TDM). irrigtion systems nd constructing new cnls. The Psycho-economic Drought Mngement (PDM) nd chllenge is to ensure tht reserch nd extension provide Integrted Drought Mngement (IDM). the necessry knowledge nd trining to enle frmers to follow sustinle drought mngement prctices If the humn dimensions of the typology found y within n IDM pproch. this study re ignored, the presumed solutions of science, Government support services re not effective. technology nd engineering re doomed to filure. Promoting more effective services tht consider this Recommendtions for effective drought mitigtion with drought-mngement typology is recommended. Most regrd to the mngement typology developed y this strtegies tht frmers in different mngement typology study follow. groups perceive s effective require resources nd time, The TDM group predominntly depends on which re not ville during drought. Therefore, technicl strtegies to cope with drought. Therefore, drought-prone res should develop policies nd recommendtions include: prepredness plns tht emphsize risk mngement rther thn trditionl crisis mngement pproches tht Provide more effective drought-relted griculturl emphsize rective, emergency response mesures [39,40]. reserch nd extension progrms to promote more Crisis mngement decreses self-relince nd increses effective technicl solutions for frmers in this dependence on government nd donors. The overriding group. principle of drought policy should e n emphsis on risk 424

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