DNA Chapter 2 read principal points. Timeline for genetics
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1 DNA Chapter 2 read principal points Timeline for genetics
2 Deoxyribonucleic acid Functional Properties 1. Replication DNA is copied prior to cell division why?
3 2. Storage of information DNA inherited from parent to offspring from cell to cell Gene expression Genes encode proteins 3. Mutation DNA changes to allow variation and adaptation, the basis of evolution
4 A six-legged green frog. (Reproduced by permission of JLM Visuals Neutral, harmful, adaptive?
5 DNA History 1869 Meischer extracted nuclein from pus 1900s chromosomes discovered The genetic material must have the 3 functional properties microscopy.bio.cmich.edu
6 Griffith finds transforming factor 1928 London Streptococcus pneumoniae bacterium pneumonia in mice, deadly to humans sputum with bacteria
7 Smooth strain (IIIS) virulent polysaccharide capsule capsule allows bacteria to evade immune system Fluorescent stain of capsule
8 isolate live IIIS from mouse
9 S pneumococcus kills mouse in 24 hours. But 100 million IIR strain bacterial cells is harmless S R Appearance when grown on an agar plate (Research photographs of Dr. Harriet Ephrussi-Taylor, courtesy of The Rockefeller University.)
10 DNA-works.html
11 Rough strain IIR is avirulent -> isolate live IIR IIR lacks capsule
12 The experiment: Heat kill IIIS strain mouse?
13 Heat killed IIIS strain + live strain IIR mouse? Which strain is isolated?
14
15 Griffith s experiment and conclusion A transforming factor in killed S strain transformed live R strain into S DNA or protein?
16 1944 Avery, McCarty, Macleod 1. Heat kill IIIS 2. Remove lipids and sugars how? FYI igenetics: DNA as Genetic Material: Avery s Transformation Experiment
17 3. Divide into 3 and treat with: protease RNase DNase next, add live R cells to each
18
19
20 1952 Hershey and Chase Used T2 bacteriophage + E. coli A phage is a virus that infects bacteria
21 How phage work 1. phage adsorbs onto bacterial surface 2. Genetic material injected 3. Cell makes progeny phage IS the genetic material DNA, or protein?
22
23 Experiment 1. Label phage protein with 35 S infect E. coli strip phage off cell surface New phage are not radioactive
24 2. Label phage DNA with 32 P -> infect E.coli -> blend -> New phage contain 32 P
25
26 ase-experiment.html
27 Hershey and Chase conclusion DNA is responsible for function and reproduction of phage virus = the genetic material
28 Structure of DNA = nucleotide polymers NUCLEOTIDES 1. Nitrogenous base Purines = guanine and adenine G A How big IS a nucleotide? UTAH cell scale Purines attached to 1 carbon of sugar at 9 nitrogen, covalent bond, pyrimidines attached to 1 carbon at 1 nitrogen
29 Pyrimidines Thymine T Cytosine C RNA contains uracil U
30 2. Deoxyribose sugar RNA (ribose) 2 OH makes RNA less stable than DNA Sugar + base = nucleoside
31 3. Phosphate (PO 4 ) Nucleotide = base + sugar + phosphate Phosphate covalently (phosphodietster bond) attached to 5 C of sugar Phosphodiester bond - Covalent bond between phosphate of one nucleotide and 3 sugar carbon of another 9 N (purine) or 6N (pyrimidine) covalently bonded to 1C of sugar
32 DNA is a polymer of nucleotides polarity 5 carbon to 3 hydroxyl
33 DNA (double helix) Watson and Crick 1953 GET ncm/justsay cust-rec rate-item communit tg/stores/d -favorite-lis true just-say-no X-ray diffraction data Rosalind Franklin, Maurice Wilkins
34 DNA properties include:
35 Complementary base pairing 1. Hydrogen bonds between complementary bases How many bonds in a G-C pair? A-T? Which is stronger?
36
37 Complementary base pairs Which are the G-C pairs?
38 2. antiparallel stands 5 3 and 3 5
39 3. Sugar phosphate backbones
40 4. Base composition DNA 50% purine 50% pyrimidine A = T G = C A/T = 1 C/G = 1 A +T does not equal C+G A + G = C + T Chargaff (1950)
41 5. DNA can denature and renature Melt hydrogen bonds (chemical or heat)
42 And 5. Right handed helix 6. Complete turn of the helix is 0.34 nm, 10 bases per turn 7. Major and minor grooves
43 Major and minor grooves
44 Forms of DNA B DNA right helix 10 bp/ turn A DNA right helix 10.9 bp/ turn Z DNA left helix 12 bp/turn (role?) Cellular DNA closest to B DNA 10.4 bp/turn
45 Replication of DNA by Complementary Base Pairing HHMI interactive DNA replication advanced
46 Organization of DNA in chromosomes Genome Full amount of genetic material in a single cell
47 Viral chromosome Single or double stranded DNA or RNA Circular or linear Parvovirus ssdna Influenza ssrna HIV ssrna Bacteriophage ds DNA Herpes ds DNA
48 Genetic material in prokaryotes 1 (usually) chromosome Circular (most) chromosome Supercoiled DNA located in nucleoid region Neisseria gonorrhoeae
49 E. coli = 4.6 million bp, circular chromosome 1500 um genome stuffed into a 1 um cell via supercoiling E. Coli cells E. coli DNA map of chromosome
50 Some bacteria contain extra-chromosomal DNA called a plasmid
51 Eukaryotic Chromosomes C value - Amount of DNA varies among species
52 The structure of chromatin DNA + proteins Highly conserved
53 Histones and non-histones Histone proteins basic net + charge interacts with charged DNA Package DNA Highly conserved Non-histone proteins vary among species
54 What do histones do? 1. pack DNA into chromatin Condense DNA 10,000X (2 meters nanometers) 1. Modifications to histone proteins affect gene expression
55 5 histone proteins Histone type #amino acids content H %lysine, 2%arginine H2A % lysine, 9% arginine H2B % lysine, 6% arginine H %lysine, 15% arginine H % lysine, 4% arginine Note: all are lysine/arginine rich, they contain other amino acids, but at small percentages. Basic, + charge
56 Gel electrophoresis
57 epigenetics Modification of histone proteins changes gene expression. Chemical tags can be inherited and are stable in cell division
58 Pbs: A Tale of Two Mice Epigenetics with degrassi w/3411/02.html Agouti Mice Epigenetics and gene silencing Mouse and twin studies Diet and the epigenome Methyl group tags
59 Chromosome packaging 1. Nucleosomes 1 nucleosome beads on a string The 10 um chromatin fiber 2(H2A).2(H2B) 2(H3).2(H4) octomer
60 Dual role of nucleosomes stable to shelter DNA and compact it labile to allow DNA information to be used
61 2. The 30 nm chromatin fiber Histone H1 attaches linker DNA to nucleosomes
62 The 30 nm chromatin fiber (11nm string-> 30 nm helical fiber) See Science article
63 3. Further packaging into loops and scaffolds
64 Summary of DNA packaging 30nm chromatin fiber Nucleosomes DNA helix
65 Metaphase chromosome is 10,000 X condensed compared to double helix Condensed scaffold The scaffold with loops
66 Euchromatin and Heterochromatin
67 1. Heterochromatin Condensed Transcriptionally inactive Ex. centromeres
68 Heterochromatin stains darkly
69 Heterchromatin example Barr body (facultative, extent of inactivity varies) Inactivated X chromosome in females
70
71 2. Euchromatin Lighter staining regions of DNA that contain genes Transcriptionally active
72 Unique Sequences and Repetitive DNA
73 What genes are on a chromosome? Chromosome 11 flyover Terms: Transposon Pseudogene Olfactory Polymorphism
74 1. Unique Sequence DNA (1 to a few copies) a. Genes Encode proteins ~60% of DNA Only 2% of DNA is coding (H. sapiens) Estimated 20,000 genes in humans
75 b. Gene families Example: Beta globin (encode subunits of hemoglobin) e encodes embryonic beta globin g encode fetal beta globin y is a pseudogene (not functional) d encodes normal beta globin b encodes normal adult beta globin
76 2. Repetitive DNA Repeated sX in the genome a. Dispersed repeated DNA LINES = long interspersed elements bp Ex. humans have 500,000 copies of L1 = 15 % of genome. some are transposons= copy and move
77
78 SINES bp Ex. Alu repeats repeated 1 million times = 10% of genome
79 b. Tandem repeats 1 10 bp long tandemly repeated Centromeres, telomeres, rrna genes Ex. telomere sequence repeated 2000X 5'...TTAGGG TTAGGG TTAGGG TTAGGG TTAGGG TTAGGG..3' 3'...AATCCC AATCCC AATCCC AATCCC AATCCC AATCCC..5'
80 Ex. rrna genes
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