Soils and Foundations for Architects and Engineers

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1 Soils and Foundations for Architects and Engineers

2 Soils and Foundations for Architects and Engineers Chester I. Duncan, Jr., FASCE Professor of Architecture The University of Texas at Arlington I RUf?TURA~ ngmeermg s e r 1 e s ~SPRINGER SCIENCE+BUSINESS MEDIA, LLC

3 Copyright 1992 by Springer Science+ Business Media New York Originally published by Van Nostrand Reinhold in 1992 Library of Congress Catalog Card Number ISBN ISBN (ebook) DOI / All rights reserved. No part of this work covered by the copyright hereon may be reproduced or used in any form or by any means-graphic, electronic, or mechanical, including photocopying, recording, taping, or information storage and retrieval systems-without written permission of the publisher. Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data Duncan, Jr., Chester 1., Soils and foundations for architects and engineers I Chester I. Duncan, Jr. p. em. Includes index. ISBN Soil mechanics. 2. Foundations. I. Title. TA710.D '5136--dc CIP

4 ACKNOWLEDGMENT Artwork prepared by Sherry Leigh Penley The University of Texas at Arlington

5 Contents Preface A Brief Overview of Chapter Content XV xvii 1 CLASSIFICATION OF SOILS General Soil Terminology 1 Rock, Soil, Coarse Grained Soils, Fine Grained Soils, Gravel, Sand, Silt, Clay, Colloids, Organic Soil, Inorganic Soil, Loam, Top Soil, Consistency, Cohesion, Plasticity, Atterberg Limits 1-3. Soil Classification 4 General, Classification Systems 1-4. Particle Size 5 General, Sieve Test, Classification by Particle Size, Limitation to Classification by Particle Size 1-5. Particle Distribution 8 General, Different Kinds of Particle Distribution, Coefficients of Uniformity and Curvature, Sedimentation Test 1-6. Soil Classification by Texture AASHO Classification System ASTM Classification System The Unified Soil Classification System 13 General, The Fifteen Soil Classifications, Identification of Organic Soils, Identification oflnorganic Soils, Plasticity Chart Closure Sample Problems 20 2 PHYSICAL PROPERTIES OF SOILS General Unit Weight, Density Porosity Void Ratio 30 vu

6 Vlll Contents 2-5. Water Content Specific Gravity Representative Values of Physical Properties Relative Density of Coarse Grained Soils Angle of Internal Friction Unconfined Compression Strength Consistency Cohesion Sensitivity Sample Problems 40 3 SUBSURFACE SOIL EXPLORATION Preliminary Investigation of Site 46 General Considerations, Portable Sampling Equipment, Soil Examination by Test Pit 3-2. Preliminary Identification of Soils 50 Touch Test, Dry Strength Test, Shaking Test, Thread Test, Dispersion Test, Representative Test Results 3-3. Field Survey Engineering Investigation 52 Laboratory Tests 3-5. Test Borings 54 General, Earth Core Borings, Standard Penetration Test, Depth to Bedrock, Refusal, Water Table, Perforated Pipe 3-6. Typical Test Boring Log Core Borings Geologic Description of Site Shear Tests 63 Vane Shear Field Test, Direct Shear Laboratory Test, Triaxial Compression Test Closure 67 4 ALLOWABLE SOIL BEARING PRESSURE General Design Considerations Soil Behavior at Ultimate Bearing Capacity Equations for Ultimate Bearing Capacity 70 General Considerations, Footings on Mixed Grained Soil, Footings on Granular Soil, Footings on Cohesive Soil 4-4. Allowable Soil Bearing Pressure Pressure Distribution-Pressure Bulbs 74 Footing Overlap 4-6. Effect of Ground Water on Ultimate Bearing Capacity General Considerations of Settlement 76 Reasons for Settlement on Sand, Reasons for Settlement of Clay, Rate of Settlement, Permissible Settlement

7 Contents ix 4-8. Settlement Calculations-Footings on Sand 80 Modification in Blow Count Due to Ground Water, Modification in Blow Count Due to Release of Overburden 4-9. Recommendations for Design of Footings on Sand The Theory of Settlement-Footings on Oay 87 Overburden, Normally Loaded Soils, Preloaded Soils, Reduction in Void Ratio as a Function of Pressure, Settlement as a Function of Reduction in Void Ratio Consolidation Test 89 Deformation as a Function of Time, Thee-Log p Curve Settlement Calculations-Footings on Clay 93 The Formula For Settlement, Simplified Calculations For Ap, Settlement Calculation Procedure, The Effect of Site Excavation Recommendations for Design of Footings on Clay Recommendations for Design of Footings on Mixed grained Soil Closing Recommendations 98 General, Minimum Soil Pressure, Local Shear, Support Options, Minimum Footing Width Presumptive Bearing Pressure Sample Problems SPREAD FOOTINGS General Footing Excavation 117 Earth Formed Footings, Wood Formed Footings 5-3. Approval of Subgrade Interaction Between Footing and Ground Typical Footing Reinforcement Vertical Dowels 121 Column Dowels, Wall Dowels, Requirements Relating to Dowels 5-7. Typical Footing Details 122 Purpose, Wall Footings, Individual Column Footings, Combined Footings, Required Footing Area, Mat Foundations 5-8. Property Line Considerations 125 Rectangular Footings, Strap Footings, Combined Footings 5-9. Factors Affecting Vertical Placement of Footings 128 Acceptable Soil Bearing Pressure, Placement With Respect to Frost, Placement With Respect to Expansive Soil, Proximity to Adjacent Footings, Proximity To Adjacent Properties, Effect of Ground Water Dead Load Bearing Pressure Sample Problems 132

8 X Contents 6 PILES, PIERS AND CAISSONS General Piles 137 Timber Piles, Structural Steel HP Piles, Steel Shell Piles, Steel Pipe 6-3. Piers 144 Installation in Clay, Installation in Sand, With Slurry, Installation in Sand, With Hollow Shaft Auger 6-4. Caissons Ultimate Load Carrying Capacity Unit Shear Stress Due to Cohesion-Clay Unit Shear Stress Due to Skin Friction-Sand '. Unit End Bearing Stress-Clay Unit End Bearing Stress-Sand Evaluation of Design by Formula Load Tests 156 Load Test Scheduling, General Requirements, Testing Procedures, Test Evaluation, Safety Factors Pile Clusters 160 Load Capacity, Minimum Number of Piles Battered Piles Advantages and Disadvantages 162 Piles, Piers, Caissons Appropriate Use of Piles, Piers and Caissons Concreting With Tremie or Elephant Trunk Sample Problems LATERAL EARTH PRESSURE General The Concept of Lateral Earth Pressure 178 Angle of Repose(), Angle of Rupture a, Angle of Internal Friction~ 7-3. The Coulomb Equation for Shear Resistance The Concept of Active Earth Pressure The Wedge Theory of Active Earth Pressure Coefficient of Active Pressure Validity of the Active Pressure Formulas Equivalent Liquid Pressure Theory Numerical Accuracy of"ka and Pa Charts for Estimating Backfill Pressure Sample Problems WALLS-CONSTRUCTION DETAILS General Earth Embankment 197

9 Contents xi 8-3. Sheet Piling Retaining Walls Soldier Beam Retaining Walls Basement Wall-Typical Detail Basement Wall-Special Conditions 204 Face Brick Below Grade, Exposed Concrete Wall, Recessed Entrance, First Floor Slab Extension, Basement Wall Bearing on a Continuous Footing, Basement Wall Designed as a Grade Beam 8-7. Gravity Retaining Walls Cantilever Retaining Wall Wails Requiring Special Restraints 211 Battered Piles, Prestressed Tiedowns, Prestressed Tiebacks Prestressed Tiedowns and Tiebacks 214 Purpose, Material, Installation, Protection of Cables, Destruction Tests Requirements Relative to Backfill 218 Material Source, Factors in the Selection and Use of Backfill, Use of Granular Materials, Use of Cohesive Materials, Installation of Backfi.ll, Design Responsibility Drainage 222 General, Drainage System-Basement Wall, Drainage System -Cantilever Retaining Wall, Drainage System- Gravity Retaining Wall, Drainage Filter Design Sample Problems WALLS-DESIGN CONSIDERATIONS Lateral Pressure Design Requirements 228 General, Lateral Pressure as a Function of Excavation, Concerns Regarding Water Pressure 9-2. Basement Wall Design Options 231 Wails Designed to Span Vertically, Wails Designed to Span Horizontally, General Details of Reinforcement, Evaluation of Design Options, A Special Word of Caution 9-3. Cantilever Retaining Wall-Modes of Failure 236 Overturning Mode, Sliding Mode 9-4. Cantilever Retaining Walls-Different Types 237 Type 1, Type 2, Type 3, General Proportions 9-5. Typical Reinforcing-Cantilever Retaining Wall Counterfort Retaining Walls Earth Pressure Transfer-Concrete to Concrete 241 General, Types 1 and 2, Type Earth Pressure Transfer-Footing to Ground 243 General, Resistance Developed by Shear, Resistance Developed by Passive Pressure, Safety Factor Against Lateral Movement

10 Xll Contents 9-9. Earth Pressure Transfer-Basement Slab to Ground Sample Problems SOIL COMPACTION General Borrow Fill Situations Where Soil Compaction is Required Compaction of Large, Open Areas Compaction of Small, Confined Areas Compaction of Coarse Grained Soils 269 General, Compaction in Terms of Relative Density, Determination of Relative Density Compaction of Fine Grained Soils 272 General, Proctor Density Tests Compaction of Mixed Grained Soils Verification of In-Place Soil Density Field Control of Moisture Content Compaction Characteristics of USCS Soil Groups Sample Problems EXPANSIVE CLAY General 285 Colloids Clay Minerals Major Clay Groups 287 Kaolinite - Al 4 Si (0H) 8, Illite, Montmorillonite -Si 8 Al (0H) 4 nh 2 0, Bentonite Cation Exchange 289 Ions Particle Size Atterberg Limits 290 Liquid Limit (LL), Plastic Limit (PL), Shrinkage Limit (SL), Plasticity Index (PI) Other Test Procedures 295 Unrestrained Swelling Test, Swelling-Pressure Test Reasons Why Water Content Changes 296 Climate and Weather, On-site Construction and Landscaping, Off-site Construction, Unforeseen Problems Building Construction 297 General, Construction of Foundations, Construction of Slab on Ground Residential Construction The Effect of Moisture Change in Residential Construction 301 Condition 1, Condition 2

11 Contents xiii The Effect of Moisture Migration in Residential Construction General Recommendations Regarding Residential Construction Inspection For Evidence of Residential Damage Release of Overburden CHARACTERISTICS OF ROCK General General Classifications of Rock 308 Classification By Origin, Classification By Texture Faults in Rock Masses Weathering Core Borings 311 General, Laboratory Evaluation Rock Quality Designation Allowable Bearing Pressure 313 General Considerations, Bearing Pressure From RDQ Values, Bearing Pressure From Code New York City Building Code Rock Grouting Bedrock 317 APPENDIX A EARTH PRESSURE TRANSFER AT COLD 319 JOINT BY SHEAR-FRICTION A-1. Allowable Transfer Force 319 A-2. Shear-Friction Reinforcing Details 323 A-3. Development of Reinforcing 323 A-4. Closing Comments 323 APPENDIX B EARTH PRESSURE TRANSFER AT COLD JOINT BY SHEAR KEY 325 B-1. Typical Shear Key Details 325 B-2. Typical Load Requirements 325 B-3. Shear Key Theory of Design 326 Induced Stresses, Allowable Stresses, Summary of Stresses B-4. Recommended Shear Key Dimensions 329 B-5. Recommended Transfer Force 329 APPENDIX C PRESSURE DISTRIBUTION WITHIN A SOIL MASS 331 C-1. General Observations 331 C-2. Pressure Induced at any Point by a Concentrated Load 332

12 xiv Contents C-3. Pressure Induced at any Point by a Circular Load 333 C-4. Pressure Induced at a Comer by a Rectangular Load 334 C-5. Pressure Induced at any Point by a Rectangular Load 336 C-6. Sample Problems 337 APPENDIX D BASEMENT SLAB ON GROUND-EMPIRICAL DESIGN 339 D-1. General Details 339 Lightly Loaded Slabs, Heavily Loaded Slabs D-2. Reinforcing Steel 341 General, Splices in Reinforcement, Wire Mesh Alternate D-3. Stone Base 342 Material, Compaction D-4. Ground Water 344 APPENDIX E DOWELS FOR LOAD TRANSFER INTO FOOTINGS 345 E-1. General Considerations 345 Purpose of Dowel, Load Transfer through Dowels, Typical Dowel Requirements, Length Requirements E-3. The Use of Hooks 348 E-4. Size Substitution-Compression Bars 349 APPENDIX F BUOYANCY 350 F-1. General 350 Safety Factor F-2. Sample Problems 351 REFERENCES 355 INDEX 357

13 Preface The purpose of this book is twofold: 1. To serve as a textbook for architectural and engineering students in undergraduate and graduate level courses, and 2. To serve as a reference for architectural and engineering practitioners. The student is interested in the basic theory of soil mechanics and foundations, and in a generalized overview of the application of that theory in practice. The practitioner, on the other hand has learned the basics, and is now interested in the actual application of theory to a particular situation. The theory of soil mechanics is based on the assumption that the soil in question is homogeneous and isotropic throughout a given mass. Such idealism, however, is seldom realized in practice. The application oftheory, therefore, must be tempered with judgement, and judgement can only come from experience. The application of theory, as presented in this book, incorporates the experience which the author has gained in the design of many buildings in a variety of soil situations. Pictures, of course, are worth a thousand words. This book incorporates almost two hundred illustrations, each of which tells a story. Architects and engineers are visually oriented, and the story a picture tells becomes readily apparent to them. Because the text and the illustrations complement each other, it is recommended that both be studied in order to gain a clear understanding of the subject material. It has been the author's goal to present the basic concepts and applications of soils and foundations in a clear, readable, and hopefully interesting way. The comments, suggestions and criticisms of readers will be appreciated. XV

14 A Brief Overview of Chapter Content 1. An introduction to the terminology, methodology and different standards used in the identification and classification of soils. 2. A discussion of the various physical properties of different kinds of soil and the test procedures used in their determination. 3. Information as to the different methods of field identification, sampling and engineering investigation of in-situ soils. 4. The different ways in which a footing may fail, and the theory by which the ultimate bearing capacity of a footing may be computed. Pressure bulbs and pressure distribution. The effect of ground water. The reasons for footing settlement, and methods by which settlement can be computed and evaluated. 5. A general consideration of spread footings, including excavation, form work and reinforcing. A description of the different kinds of footings and the different situations in which each might be used. A discussion of the problems relating to the vertical and horizontal placement of a footing. 6. The theoretical and practical approach to the design and installation of piles, piers and caissons. 7. The theory behind lateral earth pressure. The way in which different soils exert different pressures. The equivilant liquid pressure theory. Practical methods by which lateral pressure can be analysed, both as to numerical value and effect. 8. Temporary retaining walls as required for major excavation. A general discussion of the architectural treatment of basement walls and retaining walls, including special strength considerations, such as prestressed rock and soil anchorages. Requirements relative to backfill and wall drainage systems. 9. The lateral pressure for which a wall must be designed. The different options of design. General reinforcing details. The different ways in which earth pressure can be transferred from the wall to the supporting element. xvii

15 xviii A Brief Overview of Chapter Content 10. The need, theory and practical application of soil compaction, including a discussion of relative density, optimum moisture content and verification of in-place soil density. Included also are the compaction characteristics ofthe soils ofthe Unified Soil Classification System. 11. An in-depth discussion relative to the phenomenon of expansive clay. Recommendations regarding the construction of buildings and residences on sites consisting of expansive clay. Looking for evidence of damage. 12. The general classifications of rock, and the methods by which the load bearing characteristics of a rock mass can be determined. A. Transference of lateral load across a cold joint by the principles of shear-friction. B. Transference of lateral load across a cold joint by the use of shear keys. Recommendations regarding different shear key design loads. C. The ways in which the intensity of vertical pressure can be determined at any point in a soil mass due to the action of various types of loading. D. General recommendations relative to the empirical design and construction of slab on ground. E. Details relative to the transference of vertical load by the use of reinforcing dowels. Development lengths, as required for use in shear-friction analysis. F. The effect of ground water in terms of buoyancy on buildings.

16 Soils and Foundations for Architects and Engineers

Brooks/Cole Thomson LearningiM. Fundamentals of Geotechnical Engineering. Braja M. Das. California State University, Sacramento

Fundamentals of Geotechnical Engineering Braja M. Das California State University, Sacramento Brooks/Cole Thomson LearningiM Australia Canada Mexico Singapore Spain United Kingdom United States CHAPTER