Landolt-Börnstein Numerical Data and Functional Relationships in Science and Technology New Series / Editor in Chief: W.

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1 Landolt-Börnstein Numerical Data and Functional Relationships in Science and Technology New Series / Editor in Chief: W. Martienssen Group VIII: Advanced Materials and Technologies Volume 2 Materials Subvolume A Powder Metallurgy Data Part 1 Metals and Magnets Editors: P. Beiss, R. Ruthardt, H. Warlimont Authors: V. Behrens, P. Beiss, B. Commandeur, J.J. Dunkley, H. Harada, N. Horiishi, K. Hummert, P. Jansson, G. Kientopf, D. Lupton, B. Mais, H. Müller, R. Müller, T. Murase, H. Nagel, P. Neumann, R. Ruthardt, L. Schneider, C. Spiegelhauer, S. Takaragi, H. Warlimont, W. Weise

2 ISSN (Advanced Materials and Technologies) ISBN Springer-Verlag Berlin Heidelberg New York Library of Congress Cataloging in Publication Data Zahlenwerte und Funktionen aus Naturwissenschaften und Technik, Neue Serie Editor in Chief: W. Martienssen Vol. VIII/2A1: Editors: P. Beiss, R. Ruthardt, H. Warlimont At head of title: Landolt-Börnstein. Added t.p.: Numerical data and functional relationships in science and technology. Tables chiefly in English. Intended to supersede the Physikalisch-chemische Tabellen by H. Landolt and R. Börnstein of which the 6th ed. began publication in 1950 under title: Zahlenwerte und Funktionen aus Physik, Chemie, Astronomie, Geophysik und Technik. Vols. published after v. 1 of group I have imprint: Berlin, New York, Springer-Verlag Includes bibliographies. 1. Physics--Tables. 2. Chemistry--Tables. 3. Engineering--Tables. I. Börnstein, R. (Richard), II. Landolt, H. (Hans), III. Physikalisch-chemische Tabellen. IV. Title: Numerical data and functional relationships in science and technology. QC ' This work is subject to copyright. All rights are reserved, whether the whole or part of the material is concerned, specifically the rights of translation, reprinting, reuse of illustrations, recitation, broadcasting, reproduction on microfilm or in other ways, and storage in data banks. Duplication of this publication or parts thereof is permitted only under the provisions of the German Copyright Law of September 9, 1965, in its current version, and permission for use must always be obtained from Springer-Verlag. Violations are liable for prosecution act under German Copyright Law. Springer-Verlag Berlin Heidelberg New York a member of BertelsmannSpringer Science+Business Media GmbH Springer-Verlag Berlin Heidelberg 2003 Printed in Germany The use of general descriptive names, registered names, trademarks, etc. in this publication does not imply, even in the absence of a specific statement, that such names are exempt from the relevant protective laws and regulations and therefore free for general use. Product Liability: The data and other information in this handbook have been carefully extracted and evaluated by experts from the original literature. Furthermore, they have been checked for correctness by authors and the editorial staff before printing. Nevertheless, the publisher can give no guarantee for the correctness of the data and information provided. In any individual case of application, the respective user must check the correctness by consulting other relevant sources of information. Cover layout: Erich Kirchner, Heidelberg Typesetting: Authors and Redaktion Landolt-Börnstein, Darmstadt Printing and Binding: WB-Druck, Rieden/Allgäu SPIN: / Printed on acid-free paper

3 Preface Powder Metallurgy Data is the first among a series of volumes on technical data of materials predominantly used in engineering. To this end Springer - Verlag decided to publish the new Group VIII Landolt - Börnstein Series with the title Advanced Materials and Technologies. As in all its history the scope of Landolt - Börnstein data collections is the authoritative coverage of critically evaluated and reviewed data on physical, chemical and technical properties, including information available from technical standards, industry catalogues and brochures, conference proceedings, research reports and scientific journals. Powder metallurgical technologies and material properties have been thoroughly treated in the 6 th edition of Landolt - Börnstein some 35 years ago in Volume IV/2b in German language. Yet, many changes in technology and numerous material innovations suggested a new approach instead of an update. As with so many other production technologies too, powder metallurgy is not a homogenous set of equal processing steps for each and every material, but a collective term to denote a vast variety of totally different production methods in powder manufacturing and powder processing. Even within a single material system like steel the multitude of methods to manufacture, shape and consolidate powder cannot be surveyed by a single individual any more. The reason for this is the relative youth of the technology, its fast growth during the last three decades and its immense flexibility which makes it a small volume problem solver not noticed by the broader engineering community. For many applications powder metallurgy (PM) is the only way to economically produce so called impossible materials, e. g. homogenous fine grained immiscible materials, nanomaterials, highly alloyed segregation free tool steels or nickel base alloys, functionally graded materials, bonded hard materials or rare earth hard magnets, just to name few. The border lines in defining powder metallurgy are drawn pragmatically by unwritten conventions: Powdered materials and their processing for sprayed surface coatings are for example generally not attributed to PM, spray forming of performs for semifinished products is related to PM. This view will certainly be perceived as inconsistent by readers and users of the present volume as far as they are not familiar with the technology, yet, this perspective has historically developed as the two disciplines are covered by different professional societies. Other thematic inconsistencies will be noticed by those who search unsuccessfully for data that could not be included here. Because of the complexity of the topic, at a very early stage it became obvious that no single person would be willing or able to undertake the task of issuing Powder Metallurgy Data. Therefore, the Joint Committee on Powder Metallurgy formed by five German professional societies (DGM, DKG, VDEh, FPM and VDI - W) tried to motivate the authors for a collective approach, each of whom is an expert in his field. This was the only possibility to gather the widespread information which is contained in scientific journals only to a very minor percentage. The majority of the data was available only through conference proceedings, company literature and the internationally very different standards on PM materials. For several groups of materials, particularly the newer developments and processes that are practiced exclusively at a single location, it was not possible to find authors, be it that data could not be systematically compiled because they are not available or be it that companies were unable to permit the publication of internal information. Some authors finished their manuscripts very fast, other chapters took much longer time. For this reason, the end of the literature evaluation varies from contribution to contribution. This leaves deficiencies that the editors are well aware of hoping that the users will forgive the lack of information in certain areas when considering what has been achieved in other areas. During the preparation of the manuscripts the collected data turned out to be so voluminous that it became necessary to divide the material in the two subvolumes VIII / 2 A 1 and VIII / 2 A 2. The present subvolume VIII / 2 A 1 contains information on powders and shaping technologies, semifinished products and structural parts as well as more functional materials for friction, electrical contact or magnetic applications or materials where the porosity is technically exploited. In agreement with the high value added in this industry branch, the materials for structural parts have more extensively been treated in the literature than many other PM products. In the light of the few futile efforts to set up a new standard in the field of PM literature the editors are the more obliged to those who volunteered as authors and achieved a density of hard core information that will long stay unsurpassed. Aachen, August 2002 The Editors

4 VI Contributors Editors P. Beiss Professur und Institut für Werkstoffkunde Rheinisch Westfälische Technische Hochschule (RWTH) Aachen D Aachen, Germany R. Ruthardt Deutsche Gesellschaft für Materialkunde e.v. Außenstelle Hanau Adalbert-Stifter-Str. 19 D Hanau H. Warlimont Leibniz-Institut für Festkörper- und Werkstoffforschung Dresden D Dresden, Germany Authors V. Behrens AMI Doduco GmbH Im Altgefäll 12 D Pforzheim, Germany P. Beiss Professur und Institut für Werkstoffkunde Rheinisch Westfälische Technische Hochschule (RWTH) Aachen D Aachen, Germany B. Commandeur PEAK Werkstoff GmbH Siebeneicker Str. 235 D Velbert, Germany J. J. Dunkley Atomising Systems Ltd Unit 8, Distribution Centre Meadowhall Sheffield S9 1EW UK H. Harada Higashikaya Fukaya Saitama Japan

5 Contributors VII N. Horiishi Toda Kogyo Branch World Trade Center 23F Hamamatsucho Minato Tokyo Japan K. Hummert Powder Light Metals GmbH Am Wiesenbusch 2 D Gladbeck, Germany P. Jansson Höganäs AB S Höganäs, Sweden G. Kientopf Böhler-Uddeholm Deutschland GmbH Hansaallee 321 D Düsseldorf, Germany D. Lupton W.C. Heraeus GmbH & Co. KG Heraeusstr D Hanau, Germany B. Mais ECKA Granulate MicroMet GmbH Hovestr. 46a D Hamburg, Germany H. Müller Wieland-Werke AG Graf-Arco-Str. 36 D Ulm R. Müller Schunk GmbH Prüflabor Friedrich Eisenkolb D Thale, Germany T. Murase TDK Fundamental Material R/L Matugashita Minamihashima Narita, Chiba Japan H. Nagel Consulting and Design Engineer Wedelstr. 38 D Dortmund

6 VIII Contributors P. Neumann GKN Sinter Metal Filters GmbH D Radevormwald, Germany R. Ruthardt Deutsche Gesellschaft für Materialkunde e.v. Außenstelle Hanau Adalbert-Stifter-Str. 19 D Hanau L. Schneider Fraunhofer Institut für Angewandte Materialforschung Außenstelle Dresden D Dresden, Germany C. Spiegelhauer Det Danske Stalvaiseverk A/S DK-3300 Frederiksvaerk S. Takaragi Toda Kogyo Otake Works 1-4 Meijishinnkai Otake Hiroshima Japan H. Warlimont Leibniz-Institut für Festkörper- und Werkstoffforschung Dresden D Dresden, Germany W. Weise Juchaczweg 14 D Berlin, Germany Landolt-Börnstein Editorial Office Gagernstr. 8, D Darmstadt, Germany fax: +49 (6151) Internet Helpdesk

7 Contents IX VIII/2A Powder Metallurgy Data Part 1: Metals and Magnets Contents 1 Introduction Metal powders Introduction Production technology Oxide reduction Electrolysis Introduction Electrodeposition of copper powder basic considerations Electrodeposition of copper powder industrial realisation Further processing steps Thermal decomposition Atomisation Basic considerations Performance of atomisers Particle size distribution parameters Sphericity or particle shape Purity Other powder parameters Yield Productivity Flexibility Robustness Gas and air atomisation Efficiency of gas (and air) atomisers Basic types of gas atomiser Novel possibilities Advanced gas atomisation technology Water atomisation Basic types of water atomiser Performance Industrial production Economics of atomisation Alloying methods Powder characterisation Metal powder types and data Iron base powders Copper base powders References for Forming Introduction Uniaxial compaction in rigid dies Die compaction of powders with green strength Newer developments and emerging technologies in die compaction Die compaction with consolidation

8 X Contents Powder forging Isostatic and pseudoisostatic compaction Cold isostatic pressing Hot isostatic pressing Pseudo-HIP processes STAMP process Consolidation by atmospheric pressure Rapid omnidirectional compaction Ceracon process Ceramic mold process Forming of binder treated powders Metal injection molding Binder assisted extrusion Slip casting and wet powder processing Tape Casting Spray forming Billets Claddings and ring shapes Preforms, slabs and strips Continuous forming Powder rolling Conform extrusion Gravity sintering Billet processing and hot working Conclusions References for Semifinished products Hot isostatically pressed tool steels Heat treatment Alloying effects Chemical composition Microstructure Mechanical properties Physical properties References for Spray forming Copper alloys Materials for sliding applications Machinable materials High strength materials Anisotropy Aluminum Alloys High strength alloys (7xxx series) Elevated temperature alloys (2xxx series) Wear resistant alloys (4xxx series) Tool steels References for Structural mass production parts Introduction Manufacturing route Iron and steel

9 Contents XI Raw materials Data evaluation Elastic properties Hardness and tensile properties Unalloyed iron Binary alloys Ternary alloys Quaternary alloys Higher order alloys Impact Energy Fatigue strength Effect of density in the as-sintered condition Stress concentrations Effect of heat treatments Effect of mean stress Miscellaneous relationships Rolling contact fatigue Thermophysical properties Thermal expansion and density Specific heat Thermal conductivity Thermal diffusivity Non-ferrous materials Copper and copper alloys Aluminum alloys Summary References for Metal injection moulding Introduction Technology Process outline Powder and feedstock Powder Binder systems Feedstock Moulding Introduction Moulding equipment Requirements and possibilities Moulding conditions Debinding Sintering Introduction Equipment Sinter Regime Final treatment Materials Properties Tolerances and criteria of MIM processing MIM defects Applications Comparison of technological alternatives References for

10 XII Contents 7 Powder metallurgical filters Introduction Materials and production of metal filters Bronze powder products Stainless steel and nickel base powder products Stainless steel fiber products Characterization of metallic filtration materials Mechanical strength and density Permeability Average CCE pore diameter Bubble test pore size Pore size distribution Filtration efficiency Data Tables for Figures for References for Friction materials Introduction Raw materials used in the production of friction materials Base materials Solid state lubricants Friction modifiers Production methods Pressing techniques Spreading techniques Properties and applications Friction material requirements Methods of friction testing Applications under dry condition Railway applications Applications under wet conditions References for Magnetic materials Introduction Soft magnetic sintered and composite materials Introduction Sintered soft magnetic materials Sintered soft magnetic iron Sintered soft magnetic iron/phosphorous Sintered soft magnetic iron/silicon Sintered soft magnetic iron/silicon/phosphorous Sintered soft magnetic iron/tin/phosphorous Sintered soft magnetic iron/nickel Sintered soft magnetic iron/ chromium Sintered soft magnetic iron/cobalt Processing operations Applications Composite soft magnetic materials Soft magnetic iron composites for low to medium frequency Applications Soft magnetic composites for medium to high frequency

11 Contents XIII Soft magnetic electrolytic iron Soft magnetic composites based on pure iron particles Soft magnetic composites based on alloyed particles Applications Soft magnetic ferrites Hard magnetic sintered and bonded materials Introduction Alnico Co-Sm /1 type magnets /2 type magnets Fe - Nd - B Mn - Al - C Hard magnetic ferrites Bonded magnets Introduction Hexagonal ferrite, MOFe12O18(M:Ba,Sr) base Nd2Fe14B base Al-Ni-Fe base isotropic magnets References for Contact materials Introduction Symbols and abbreviations used in chapter Composites based on Silver Silver/nickel and silver/iron Silver metal oxides Silver/ tin oxide Silver/Cadmium Oxide Silver/zinc oxide Silver/graphite and copper/graphite Silver/tungsten, silver/tungsten carbide and silver/molybdenum Switching behaviour of silver based materials in air Composites based on copper Copper/tungsten Copper/tungsten carbide Copper/chromium and copper/iron Switching behaviour of copper based composites Switching in SF6 atmosphere, oil or air Switching in vacuum Composites based on graphite Sliding contacts Pure metals References for Beryllium Introduction Characteristic properties Occurrence, refining and production processes Material classes Applications Data Safety and health References for