INTEGRATION OF ALTERNATIVE SOURCES OF ENERGY

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1 INTEGRATION OF ALTERNATIVE SOURCES OF ENERGY FELIX A. FARRET M. GODOY SIMÕES A JOHN WILEY & SONS, INC., PUBLICATION

3 INTEGRATION OF ALTERNATIVE SOURCES OF ENERGY

5 INTEGRATION OF ALTERNATIVE SOURCES OF ENERGY FELIX A. FARRET M. GODOY SIMÕES A JOHN WILEY & SONS, INC., PUBLICATION

6 Copyright # 2006 by John Wiley & Sons, Inc. All rights reserved. Published by John Wiley & Sons, Inc., Hoboken, New Jersey Published simultaneously in Canada No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording, scanning, or otherwise, except as permitted under Section 107 or 108 of the 1976 United States Copyright Act, without either the prior written permission of the Publisher, or authorization through payment of the appropriate per-copy fee to the Copyright Clearance Center, Inc., 222 Rosewood Drive, Danvers, MA 01923, (978) , fax (978) , or on the web at Requests to the Publisher for permission should be addressed to the Permissions Department, John Wiley & Sons, Inc., 111 River Street, Hoboken, NJ 07030, (201) , fax (201) , or online at Limit of Liability/Disclaimer of Warranty: While the publisher and author have used their best efforts in preparing this book, they make no representations or warranties with respect to the accuracy or completeness of the contents of this book and specifically disclaim any implied warranties of merchantability or fitness for a particular purpose. No warranty may be created or extended by sales representatives or written sales materials. The advice and strategies contained herein may not be suitable for your situation. You should consult with a professional where appropriate. Neither the publisher nor author shall be liable for any loss of profit or any other commercial damages, including but not limited to special, incidental, consequential, or other damages. For general information on our other products and services or for technical support, please contact our Customer Care Department within the United States at (800) , outside the United States at (317) or fax (317) Wiley also publishes its books in a variety of electronic formats. Some content that appears in print may not be available in electronic formats. For more information about Wiley products, visit our web site at Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data: Farret, Felix A. Integration of alternative sources of energy/by Felix A. Farret, M. Godoy Simões. p. cm. A Wiley-Interscience publication. Includes bibliographical references and index. ISBN-13: ISBN-10: [1. Power resources. 2. Renewable energy sources.] I. Simões, Marcelo Godoy. II. Title. TJ163.2.F dc Printed in the United States of America

7 To Alzira and Fares Farret, Mary and John Hilliard, Gerry, Matheus, and Patrick, with whom I have learned and to whom I owe so much. F.A.F. For the next generation, to which Ahriel and Lira belong. Hopefully, it will be powered by renewable energy. M.G.S.

9 CONTENTS CONTRIBUTORS FOREWORD PREFACE ACKNOWLEDGMENTS ABOUT THE AUTHORS xvii xix xxi xxiii xxv 1 ALTERNATIVE SOURCES OF ENERGY Introduction Renewable Sources of Energy Renewable Energy Versus Alternative Energy Planning and Development of Integrated Energy Grid-Supplied Electricity Load Distributed Generation Renewable Energy Economics Calculation of Electricity Generation Costs European Targets for Renewables Demand-Side Management Options Supply-Side Management Options Integration of Renewable Energy Sources Integration of Renewable Energy in the United States Energy Recovery Time Sustainability Modern Electronic Controls of Power Systems 26 References 27 vii

10 viii CONTENTS 2 PRINCIPLES OF THERMODYNAMICS Introduction State of a Thermodynamic System Fundamental Laws and Principles Example in a Nutshell Practical Problems Associated with Carnot Cycle Plant Rankine Cycle for Power Plants Brayton Cycle for Power Plants Energy and Power Examples of Energy Balance Simple Residential Energy Balance Refrigerator Energy Balance Energy Balance for a Water Heater Rock Bed Energy Balance Array of Solar Collectors Heat Pump Heat Transfer Analysis Planet Earth: A Closed But Not Isolated System 54 References 56 3 HYDROELECTRIC POWER PLANTS Introduction Determination of the Useful Power Expedient Topographical and Hydrological Measurements Simple Measurement of Elevation Global Positioning Systems for Elevation Measurement Specification of Pipe Losses Expedient Measurements of Stream Water Flow Civil Works Generating Unit Regulation Systems Butterfly Valves Waterwheels Turbines Pelton Turbine Francis Turbine Michel Banki Turbine 77

11 CONTENTS ix Kaplan or Hydraulic Propeller Turbine Deriaz Turbines Water Pumps Working as Turbines Specification of Hydro Turbines 81 References 82 4 WIND POWER PLANTS Introduction Appropriate Location Evaluation of Wind Intensity Topography Purpose of the Energy Generated Means of Access Wind Power General Classification of Wind Turbines Rotor Turbines Multiple-Blade Turbines Drag Turbines (Savonius) Lifting Turbines System TARP WARP Accessories Generators and Speed Control Used in Wind Power Energy Analysis of Small Generating Systems 107 References THERMOSOLAR POWER PLANTS Introduction Water Heating by Solar Energy Heat Transfer Calculation of Thermally Isolated Reservoirs Heating Domestic Water Thermosolar Energy Parabolic Trough Parabolic Dish Solar Power Tower Production of Hydrogen Economical Analysis of Thermosolar Energy 126 References 127

12 x CONTENTS 6 PHOTOVOLTAIC POWER PLANTS Introduction Solar Energy Generation of Electricity by Photovoltaic Effect Dependence of a PV Cell Characteristic on Temperature Solar Cell Output Characteristics Equivalent Models and Parameters for Photovoltaic Panels Dark-Current Electric Parameters of a Photovoltaic Panel Model of a PV Panel Consisting of n Cells in Series Model of a PV Panel Consisting of n Cells in Parallel Photovoltaic Systems Illumination Area Solar Modules and Panels Aluminum Structures Load Controller Battery Bank Applications of Photovoltaic Solar Energy Residential and Public Illumination Stroboscopic Signaling Electric Fence Telecommunications Water Supply and Micro-Irrigation Systems Control of Plagues and Conservation of Food and Medicine Hydrogen and Oxygen Generation by Electrolysis Electric Power Supply Security and Alarm Systems Economical Analysis of Solar Energy 156 References POWER PLANTS WITH FUEL CELLS Introduction The Fuel Cell Commercial Technologies for Generation of Electricity Practical Issues Related to Fuel Cell Stacking Low- and High-Temperature Fuel Cells Commercial and Manufacturing Issues 170

13 CONTENTS xi 7.5 Constructional Features of Proton Exchange Membrane Fuel Cells Constructional Features of Solid Oxide Fuel Cells Water, Air, and Heat Management Load Curve Peak Shaving with Fuel Cells Maximal Load Curve Flatness at Constant Output Power Amount of Thermal Energy Necessary Reformers, Electrolyzer Systems, and Related Precautions Advantages and Disadvantages of Fuel Cells Fuel Cell Equivalent Circuit Practical Determination of the Equivalent Model Parameters Example of Determination of FC Parameters Aspects of Hydrogen as Fuel Future Perspectives 195 References BIOMASS-POWERED MICROPLANTS Introduction Fuel from Biomass Biogas Biomass for Biogas Biological Formation of Biogas Factors Affecting Biodigestion Characteristics of Biodigesters Construction of Biodigester Sizing a Biodigester Generation of Electricity Using Biogas 211 References MICROTURBINES Introduction Princples of Operation Microturbine Fuel Control of Microturbines Mechanical-Side Structure Electrical-Side Structure Control-Side Structure 224

14 xii CONTENTS 9.5 Efficiency and Power of Microturbines Site Assessment for Installation of Microturbines 230 References INDUCTION GENERATORS Introduction Principles of Operation Representation of Steady-State Operation Power and Losses Generated Self-Excited Induction Generator Magnetizing Curves and Self-Excitation Mathematical Description of the Self-Excitation Process Interconnected and Stand-Alone Operation Speed and Voltage Control Frequency, Speed, and Voltage Controls Load Control Versus Source Control for Induction Generators The Danish Concept Variable-Speed Grid Connection Control by the Load Versus Control by the Source Economical Aspects 258 References STORAGE SYSTEMS Introduction Energy Storage Parameters Lead Acid Batteries Constructional Features Battery Charge Discharge Cycles Operating Limits and Parameters Maintenance of Lead Acid Batteries Sizing Lead Acid Batteries for DG Applications Ultracapacitors Double-Layer Ultracapacitors High-Energy Ultracapacitors Applications of Ultracapacitors 279

15 CONTENTS xiii 11.5 Flywheels Advanced Performance of Flywheels Applications of Flywheels Design Strategies Superconducting Magnetic Storage System SMES System Capabilities Developments in SMES Systems Pumped Hydroelectric Energy Storage Storage Capabilities of Pumped Systems Compressed Air Energy Storage Storage Heat Energy Storage as an Economic Resource 295 References INTEGRATION OF ALTERNATIVE SOURCES OF ENERGY Introduction Principles of Power Injection Converting Technologies Power Converters for Power Injection into the Grid Power Flow Instantaneous Active and Reactive Power Control Approach Integration of Multiple Renewable Energy Sources DC-Link Integration AC-Link Integration HFAC-Link Integration Islanding and Interconnection Control DG Control and Power Injection 325 References DISTRIBUTED GENERATION Introduction The Purpose of Distributed Generation Sizing and Siting of Distributed Generation Demand-Side Management Optimal Location of Distributed Energy Sources 340