Clean Coal Engineering Technology

Transcription

1 Clean Coal Engineering Technology Bruce G. Miller AMSTERDAM BOSTON HEIDELBERG LONDON NEW YORK OXFORD PARIS SAN DIEGO SAN FRANCISCO SINGAPORE SYDNEY TOKYO Butterworth-Heinemann is an imprint of Elsevier

2 Butterworth-Heinemann is an imprint of Elsevier 30 Corporate Drive, Suite 400 Burlington, MA 01803, USA The Boulevard, Langford Lane Kidlington, Oxford, OX5 1GB, UK # 2011 Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced or transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic or mechanical, including photocopying, recording, or any information storage and retrieval system, without permission in writing from the publisher. Details on how to seek permission, further information about the Publisher s permissions policies and our arrangements with organizations such as the Copyright Clearance Center and the Copyright Licensing Agency, can be found at our website: This book and the individual contributions contained in it are protected under copyright by the Publisher (other than as may be noted herein). Notices Knowledge and best practice in this field are constantly changing. As new research and experience broaden our understanding, changes in research methods, professional practices, or medical treatment may become necessary. Practitioners and researchers must always rely on their own experience and knowledge in evaluating and using any information, methods, compounds, or experiments described herein. In using such information or methods they should be mindful of their own safety and the safety of others, including parties for whom they have a professional responsibility. To the fullest extent of the law, neither the Publisher nor the authors, contributors, or editors, assume any liability for any injury and/or damage to persons or property as a matter of products liability, negligence or otherwise, or from any use or operation of any methods, products, instructions, or ideas contained in the material herein. Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data Miller, Bruce G., M.S. Clean coal engineering technology / Bruce G. Miller. p. cm. Includes bibliographical references. ISBN Clean coal technologies. 2. Coal Environmental aspects. 3. Coal-fired power plants. 4. Coal-fired furnaces. I. Title. TP325.M dc British Library Cataloguing-in-Publication Data A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library. For information on all Butterworth Heinemann publications visit our Web site at Printed in the United States

3 Dedication In memory of my father, Fred Miller, who worked for the Knife River Coal Company near Beulah, North Dakota, for 20 years until his disability retirement because of an on-the-job injury. In the photograph, he is standing beside the loading shovel he operated at the mine, one that he used to load coal-hauling trucks like the one in Figure 6.2. During summer vacation while I was attending college, I drove the same kind of truck when working with my father at the mine. Both my father s career in coal and the importance of coal to the community that I grew up in sparked my lifelong interest in coal. In addition, his role as husband and father and his strong work ethic are attributes that I continually strive to match.

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5 Contents Preface xiii Part I Background Information 1 Coal as Fuel Organization of this Book The History of Coal Use Coal Use before the Industrial Revolution The Early History of U.S. Coal Mining and Use Coal Use during the Industrial Revolution The Post Industrial Revolution Use of Coal An Overview of Energy in the United States Coal Production in the United States Coal Consumption in the United States U.S. Coal Exports and Imports World Primary Energy Production and Consumption World Primary Energy Production World Primary Energy Consumption Projections of Energy Use and Coal s Contribution to the Energy Mix World Consumption of Liquid Fuels World Consumption of Natural Gas World Consumption of Coal World Consumption of Nuclear Energy World Consumption of Renewable Energy Energy Outlook for the United States Coal s Role in the U.S. s 2001 Energy Policy 49 2 The Chemical and Physical Characteristics of Coal The Definition of Coal Origin of Coal Coalification The Classification of Coal Basic Coal Analysis The Ranks of Coal The Types of Coal The Grades of Coal Classification Systems 63

6 vi Contents 3 The Worldwide Distribution of Coal Coal Distribution and Resources Coal Reserves throughout the World Major Coal-Producing Regions in the World North America Eurasia Middle East, Asia, and Oceania Europe Africa Central and South America 83 4 The Effect of Coal Usage on Human Health and the Environment Coal Mining Underground Mining Surface Mining Legislation and Reclamation Coal Preparation Water Contamination from Preparation Plants Air Contamination from Preparation Plants Refuse Contaminants from Preparation Plants Health and Safety Issues Coal Transportation Coal Combustion By-Products Emissions from Coal Combustion Sulfur Oxides Nitrogen Oxides Particulate Matter Organic Compounds Carbon Monoxide Trace Elements Greenhouse Gases Carbon Dioxide 124 Part II Coal Utilization Technologies 5 Introduction to Coal Utilization Technologies Coal Combustion Brief History of Boilers and Coal Combustion Systems Basic Steam Fundamentals and their Application to Boiler Development The Chemistry of Coal Combustion Coal Combustion Systems Influence of Coal Properties on Utility Boiler Design 166

7 Contents vii 5.2 Carbonization Brief History of Carbonization (High-Temperature) Coking Processes Coal Properties for Coke Production Coking Conditions Low-Temperature Carbonization Gasification Brief History of Coal Gasification Principles of Coal Gasification Gasifier Types Influence of Coal Properties on Gasification Regional Distribution of Gasification Systems Commercial Gasification Systems Liquefaction The Beginning of the Synthetic Fuel Industry Indirect Liquefaction Fischer-Tropsch Synthesis Direct Liquefaction Anatomy of a Coal-Fired Power Plant Coal Transport to the Power Plant Coal Handling, Storage, and Processing Coal Handling Coal Storage Coal Processing/Size Reduction Steam Generation Furnace and Convection Pass Steam Superheaters and Reheaters Economizers Steam Drums Steam Temperature Controls Air Heaters (Preheaters) Steam Turbines and Electricity Generation Steam Turbines Electric Generators Steam Condensers and Cooling Towers Steam Condensers Cooling Towers Water Treatment Environmental Protection Ash and By-Product Handling Bottom Ash Systems Convective Pass/Economizer Ash Systems Fly Ash Systems Scrubber Sludge Systems 249

8 viii Contents 7 Clean Coal Technologies for Advanced Power Generation Power Cycles Rankine Cycle The Brayton Cycle Combined Cycle Pulverized Coal-Fired Power Plants Advanced Pulverized Coal-Fired Plants Advanced Ultra-Supercritical Research and Development Oxy-Fuel Firing in Pulverized Coal-Fired Boilers Fluidized-Bed Combustion Introduction Heat Transfer Combustion Efficiency Fuel Flexibility Pollutant Formation and Control Supercritical Fluidized-Bed Boilers and Oxy-Coal Firing in Fluidized-Bed Boilers Integrated Gasification Combined Cycle Introduction Gasification Island Gas Treatment and Sulfur Recovery Combined Cycle Power Plant IGCC with Carbon Capture Benefits and Limits of IGCC Commercial Status IGCC Research Needs 296 Part III Emissions and Carbon Management 8 Coal-Fired Emissions and Legislative Action Major Coal-Related Health Episodes Pre-Industrial Revolution Post-Industrial Revolution History of Legislative Action for Coal-Fired Power Plants Pre-1970 Legislation The Clean Air Act Amendments of Clean Air Act Amendments of 1977 and Prevention of Significant Deterioration Clean Air Act Amendments of Additional NO x Regulations and Trading Programs Clean Air Interstate Rule Clean Air Mercury Rule 328

9 Contents ix New Source Review Fine Particulate Matter Impending Legislation and Pollutants under Consideration for Regulation Emissions Legislation in Other Countries Sulfur Dioxide Nitrogen Oxides Particulate Matter Trace Elements/Mercury Carbon Dioxide Air Quality and Coal-Fired Emissions Six Principal Pollutants Acid Rain Hazardous Air Pollutants Carbon Dioxide Emissions Control Strategies for Power Plants Currently Regulated Emissions Sulfur Dioxide Nitrogen Oxides Particulate Matter Pollutants with Pending Compliance Regulation Mercury Multipollutant Control ECO Process Airborne Process Multipollutant Control for Smaller Coal-Fired Boilers Nalco Mobotec Systems Others CO 2 Capture and Storage CO 2 Capture Technologies Precombustion (IGCC) CO 2 Capture Oxy-Fuel Combustion Postcombustion CO 2 Capture Biomass Cofiring Transport of CO CO 2 Storage Geologic Storage Ocean Storage Terrestrial Storage Mineral Carbonation Economics of CO 2 Sequestration 502

10 x Contents Capture Costs Costs of Transporting CO Storage Costs Permanence and Monitoring, Mitigation, and Verification 509 Part IV Clean Coal Technology Programs and Energy Security 11 U.S. and International Activities for Near-Zero Emissions during Electricity Generation Introduction to U.S. Clean Coal Technology Programs Clean Coal Technology Demonstration Program CCTDP Evolution CCTDP Funding and Costs CCTDP Projects CCTDP Accomplishments Power Plant Improvement Initiative PPII Projects Benefits of the PPII Clean Coal Power Initiative Program Importance Round 1 CCPI Projects Round 2 CCPI Projects Round 3 CCPI (CCPI-3A and CCPI-3B) Projects CCPI Benefits Benefits of DOE s Clean Coal Technology Programs Vision Vision 21 Technologies Vision 21 Benefits FutureGen DOE Carbon Sequestration Program International Carbon Sequestration Programs International Clean Coal Technology and Carbon Sequestration Activities Canada Australia Germany Japan China Others Coal and Energy Security Overview of U.S. Energy Security Issues The Future of Energy in the United States Energy and the Economy 589

11 Contents xi 12.4 Natural Gas Use in Power Generation Coal s Potential to Reduce U.S. Dependence on Imported Crude Oil Coal s Role in Future U.S. Electric Power Generation Production of Hydrogen from Coal Coal s Role in International Energy Security and Sustainable Development International Demand for Electricity Advanced Coal Technology Application Support for Sustained Coal Utilization Energy Security Sustainable Development Concluding Statements 609 Part V Supporting Information Appendix A Regional Definitions 613 A.1 Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development (OECD) 613 A.2 Non-Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development (Non-OECD) 613 A.3 European Union (EU) 614 A.4 Organization of Petroleum Exporting Countries (OPEC) 614 Appendix B Commercial Gasification Facilities Worldwide 615 Appendix C Coal-Fired Emission Factors 625 Appendix D Original List of Hazardous Air Pollutants 651 Appendix E Initial 263 Units Identified in Phase I (SO 2 ) of the Acid Rain Program 657 Index 661

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13 Preface This book is the second edition of Coal Energy Systems, which was published in 2005 and is the culmination of a 15-month effort to update the first edition. When first approached by my editor, Kenneth McCombs, I was not sure if there would be enough new information to warrant undertaking this exercise. However, after carefully reviewing what had transpired since I wrote the first edition, especially with respect to environmental regulations (specifically mercury emissions and carbon management, technology advances in carbon dioxide capture and storage, and advanced coal utilization technologies), along with the growing demand for, and utilization of, coal in the developing world, it became apparent that a second edition was necessary. As a result of the major worldwide activities in developing technologies for utilizing coal more efficiently and with less of an environmental impact, it was decided to modify the title of the book to Clean Coal Engineering Technology. Although this title may draw some skepticism, it is an accepted fact that coal is a major energy source today and will continue to be so for the next several generations, especially with the developing nations striving to improve their standard of living. Therefore, it is imperative that we continue to advance clean coal initiatives. Many governments around the world recognize that coal is here to stay and are working diligently with industry and academia to develop clean coal technologies. In this preface, I want to repeat the first two paragraphs of the first edition preface, which are just as important now as they were when the first edition was published (with maybe the exception of the reduced emphasis on the hydrogen economy): Coal is currently a major energy source in the United States as well as throughout the world, especially among many developing countries, and will continue to be so for many years. Fossil fuels will continue to be the dominant energy source for fueling the U.S. economy, with coal playing a major role for decades. Coal provides stability in price and availability, will continue to be a major source of electricity generation, will be the major source of hydrogen for the coming hydrogen economy, and has the potential to become an important source of liquid fuels. Conservation and renewable/sustainable energy are important in the overall energy picture, but they will play a lesser role in helping us satisfy our energy demands. It is recognized in the energy industry that the manner in which coal is used must, and will, change. Concerns over the environmental effects of coal utilization are resulting in better methods for controlling emissions during combustion, and more research and development into technologies to utilize coal more efficiently especially in nontraditional methods. While major advances have been made in reducing the environmental impact when using coal, we have other technologies

14 xiv Preface in hand, either near commercialization or under development, that will allow coal to be used in an even more environmentally friendly manner. The roadblocks to implementing these technologies are the financial risks associated with new technologies and the resulting higher costs of energy to the consumers. Consumers in the United States, for example, have become accustomed to low energy prices and are reluctant to pay more for their energy, whether it is transportation fuels for their vehicles, natural gas or propane for domestic heating, or electricity for their homes. The implementation of these technologies that increase energy efficiency or reduce pollution will be driven by legislative mandate and, to a lesser extent, the willingness of the consumer to pay more for energy. These words are as true today as they were in Consequently, the first edition has undergone some major rework, mainly with the addition of updated information and the inclusion of the many activities underway in the clean use of coal. The book has been expanded from 8 to 12 chapters and from 4 to 5 appendices. It has been informally divided into five sections. The first part, which consists of Chapters 1 through 4, provides detailed background information on coal. It discusses the historical use of coal, how it is currently being used, future trends of coal usage, and a comparison of coal s contribution and role in the overall energy picture. Coal distribution throughout the world, the chemical and physical characteristics of coal, and the effect of coal usage on human health and the environment are presented. The second part focuses on coal utilization technologies. Chapter 5 introduces the four major technologies for utilizing coal: carbonization/pyrolysis, combustion, gasification, and liquefaction. Chapter 6 looks at the anatomy of a coal-fired power plant because this is the technology that developing countries are currently installing at a rapid pace. A discussion of clean coal technologies, such as fluidized-bed combustion, advanced pulverized coal power plants, and integrated gasification combined cycle systems, is provided in Chapter 7. The third part of the book focuses on emissions and carbon management. Coal-fired emissions regulations are presented in Chapter 8. Emissions control strategies are presented in Chapter 9 with carbon capture, and storage is discussed in Chapter 10. In the book s fourth part, a discussion of clean coal technology programs for near-zero emissions when generating electricity is provided in Chapter 11. This includes international activities as well as those in the United States. Energy security and sustainable development are also discussed in Part IV. Coal s role in providing energy security for the world, with an emphasis on the United States, is presented in Chapter 12. The book concludes with the five appendices in Part V that contain supporting information for the various chapters. I will conclude by first stating that all errors or omissions are entirely my own. I want to thank my wife, Sharon, and children, Konrad and Anna, for supporting me these last 15 months. Thanks also go to Konrad for helping me with my literature searches, and Anna for providing some of her powerplant photographs. A very special thank you goes to Ruth Krebs and Elizabeth Wood for their work on the figures.