Fundamental Concepts of ENVIRONMENTAL CHEMISTRY. Third Edition. G.S. Sodhi. Alpha Science International Ltd. Oxford, U.K.

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1 Fundamental Concepts of ENVIRONMENTAL CHEMISTRY Third Edition G.S. Sodhi Alpha Science International Ltd. Oxford, U.K.

2 Contents Preface to the Third Edition Preface to the First Edition Acknowledgements 1. Atoms and Molecules Origin ofthe Universe 5 Nucleosynthesis 6 Interstellar Molecules 17 Inference 23 References 23 Websites Solid Earth Formation of the Earth 25 Zonal Structure of the Earth 28 Differentiation of Elements 33 References 35 Websites 35 PART I: ABIOTIC ORIGIN 3. Hydrosphere Characteristics of the Hydrosphere 36 The Ocean 37 El Nino 49 Snow and Ice 52 The Fresh Water Systems 55 Water Vapours 54 References 55 Websites Atmosphere Origin of the Atmosphere 56 Composition of the Atmosphere 59 Structure of the Atmosphere 61 Temperature Inversion 63 Heat Balance of the Earth 64 References 65 Websites 65

3 xii Contents 5. Biosphere 66 Characteristics of the Biosphere 66 Biogeochemical Cycles 68 Soil 78 Inference 83 References 84 Websites 84 PART II: BIOTIC ORIGIN Life 87 Chemical Evolution and the Prebiotic Environment 87 Stages of Chemical Evolution 90 Inference 100 References 102 Websites Cellular Environment 104 Origin of the Living Cell 104 Chemical Constituents ofthe Cell 110 Structure of the Cell 116 How a Cell Functions 118 References 119 Websites Cellular Alterations 120 Mutagenesis 120 Teratogenesis 123 Carcinogenesis 130 References 140 Websites 140 PART III: ENERGY Energy Flow 143 A Chemist's Perspective 143 A Biologist's Perspective 145 Energy Resources 148 Energy Conservation 149 References 151 Websites Fossil Fuels 153 Coal 153 Petroleum 156 Oil Spills 159 Natural Gas 163 Oil Shales 164 Inference 166

4 References 167 Websites Terrestrial Energy Geothermal Energy 169 Hydrogen-Based Economy 178 Inference 183 References 183 Websites Solar Energy Utilization of Solar Energy 185 Environmental Impacts of Solar Energy 193 Inference 194 References 195 Websites Nuclear Energy Nuclear Power Generation 196 Nuclear Waste Disposal 203 Transmittance ofradioactivity to Humans 207 Effects of Radioactivity on Human Health 208 Risk Analysis of Nuclear Power Generation 270 Nuclear Catastrophes 212 Inference 217 References 218 Websites Sulfur Oxides Sources of Sulfur Oxides 221 PART IV: AIR POLLUTANTS Fate of Sulfur Oxides in the Environment 223 Analysis of Sulfur Oxides 224 Effects of Sulfur Oxides 225 Control Measures for Sulfur Oxides 226" Acid Rain 228 References 232 Websites Nitrogen Oxides Sources of Nitrogen Oxides 234 Fate of Nitrogen Oxides in the Environment 234 Analysis of Nitrogen Oxides 235 Effects of Nitrogen Oxides 236 Control Measures for Nitrogen Oxides 237 References 243 Websites 243

5 xiv Contents 16. Carbon Monoxide Sources of Carbon Monoxide 244 Fate of Carbon Monoxide in the Environment 246 Analysis of Carbon Monoxide 248 Effects of Carbon Monoxide 249 Control Measures for Carbon Monoxide 250 References 250 Websites Photochemical Smog Formation of Photochemical Smog 252 Effects of Photochemical Smog 256 Control of Photochemical Smog 257 References 258 Websites Greenhouse Gases The Greenhouse Effect 260 Causes of Greenhouse Effect 260 Consequences of Greenhouse Effect 264 Abatement ofgreenhouse Effect 268 Tie-in-Strategies 271 The Kyoto Protocol 272 References 275 Websites Depletion of Stratospheric Ozone Introduction 277 Mechanism ofozone Depletion 279 Causes of Ozone Depletion 286 Consequences of Ozone Depletion 289 Abatement of Ozone Depletion 291 The Montreal Protocol 294 References 295 Websites Suspended Matter Types of Particulates 297 Sources of Particulates 300 Fate of Particulates in the Environment 303 Analysis of Particulates 303 Effects ofparticulates 304 Control Measures for Particulate Pollution 308 References 309 Websites Indoor Pollution Sources of Radon 310 Fate ofradon in the Environment 311

6 Contents xv Analysis of Radon 312 Effects of Radon 312 Mitigation of Radon Pollution 313 Personal Pollution 314 References 315 Websites Hydrocarbons 316 Characteristics of Hydrocarbons 316 Sources of Hydrocarbons 317 Fate of Hydrocarbons in the Environment 3 Analysis of Hydrocarbons 320 Effects of Pollution by Hydrocarbons 322 Control Measures for Hydrocarbons 323 Inference 324 References 324 Websites 324 PART V: WATER POLLUTANTS Classification of Water Pollutants 327 Unique Characteristics of Water 327 The Different Types of Pollutants 329 Thermal Pollution 337 References 341 Websites Heavy Metals 342 Mercury 342 Lead 349 Arsenic 354 Cadmium 357 Inference 360 References 360 Websites Soaps and Detergents 362 The Need 362 The Classification 363 The Characteristics 364 Environmental Impacts of Soaps and Detergents 367 Abatement Procedures for Soaps and Detergents Pollution 369 References 371 Websites Paper Mills 372 Paper Manufacture 372 Environmental Implications of Paper Mills 376 Abatement of Paper Mills Pollution 377

7 xvi Contents References 379 Websites Groundwater Pollution 380 Characteristics of Groundwater 380 Types of Groundwater Pollution 381 Sources ofgroundwater Pollution 382 Environmental Effects Associated with Groundwater 384 Groundwater in Indian Perspective 386 Mitigation ofgroundwater Pollution 387 References 389 Websites Water Treatment 390 Water Purification 390 Criteria of Water Purity 402 References 404 Websites 405 PART VI: POLLUTANTS FROM INDUSTRY Polymers and Plastics 409 The Need 409 The Classification 410 The Characteristics 411 Environmental Implications of Polymers and Plastics 414 Abatement Procedures for Polymers and Plastics Pollution 416 References 418 Websites Asbestos 419 Structural Characteristics of Asbestos 419 Applications of Asbestos 420 Sources of Asbestos in the Environment 422 Analysis of Asbestos 422 Effects of Asbestos Pollution 423 Mitigation ofasbestos Pollution 425 References 426 Websites Polychlorinated Biphenyls 427 The Need 427 Fate of polychlorinated Biphenyls in the Environment 428 Environmental Implications of Polychlorinated Biphenyls 429 Abatement Procedures for Polychlorinated Biphenyls Pollution 431 References 432 Websites 432

8 Contents xvii 32. Food Additives 433 The Need 433 The Classification 434 Risk Analysis ofsome Specific Food Additives 439 Inference 445 References 446 Websites Mining Operations 447 Types of Mining Operations 447 Steps Involved in Mining Operations 450 Environmental Effects Associated with Mining Operations 452 Inference 458 References 459 Websites 459 PART VII: POLLUTANTS FROM AGRICULTURE Fertilizers 463 The Need 463 The Classification 464 Environmental Implications of Fertilizers 465 Abatement Procedures for Fertilizers Pollution 467 Eutrophication 467 References 471 Websites Insecticides 472 The Need 472 The Classification 473 The Characteristics 473 Environmental Implications of Insecticides 476 Abatement Procedures for Insecticides Pollution 478 Bhopal Episode 481 References 485 Websites Fungicides and Herbicides 486 The Need 486 The Classification 488 The Characteristics 491 Environmental Implications of Fungicides and Herbicides 492 Abatement Procedures for Fungicides and Herbicides Pollution 496 References 498 Websites 498

9 xviii Contents PART VIII: WASTE MANAGEMENT Solid Waste 501 Nature of Solid Waste 501 Solid Waste Management 502 References 509 Websites Hazardous Waste 511 Nature of Hazardous Waste 511 Hazardous Waste Management 512 References 520 Websites 520 PART IX: UNCONVENTIONAL POLLUTANTS Noise Pollution 523 Causes of Noise Pollution 523 Consequences of Noise Pollution 523 Mitigation of Noise Pollution 525 References 525 Websites Light Pollution 527 Types of Light Pollution 527 Causes of Light Pollution 528 Effects of Light Pollution 529 Mitigation of Light Pollution 531 Inference 534 References 534 Websites 534 PART X: ENVIRONMENTAL RESTORATION Is It Possible? Structural-Functional Approach 537 References 542 Websites International Efforts 543 Sustainable Development 543 United Nations Environment Programme 544 United Nations Conference on Environment and Development, Biodiversity 549 Global Environment Facility 555 Environmental Impact Assessment 556 ISO References 558 Websites

10 Contents xix 43. India's Efforts 559 National Committee on Environmental Planning and Coordination 559 The Tiwari Committee 560 Department of Environment 560 Environment (Protection) Act, National Conservation Strategies 563 Hazardous Waste (Management and Handling) Rules, Some Voluntary Agencies Working for Environmental Conservation 569 References 570 Websites 570 Index 571

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