Chapter 38 Conservation Biology

Transcription

1 Chapter 38 Conservation Biology PowerPoint Lectures Campbell Biology: Concepts & Connections, Eighth Edition REECE TAYLOR SIMON DICKEY HOGAN Lecture by Edward J. Zalisko

2 Introduction Today, we face an environmental challenge that eclipses all others in scope: Global climate change caused by the unprecedented speed with which Earth s atmosphere is warming. The effects of climate change are already apparent in melting ice sheets, rising seas, and extreme weather, including record-shattering heat waves and precipitation. Biodiversity, the variety of living things, will be one casualty of the rapidly changing environment.

3 Introduction Climate change threatens polar bears and penguins, but thousands of other species are also imperiled, including the American pika. The pika s high body temperature is well-suited to the chilly climate of its mountain habitat. Pikas must take refuge in crevices where pockets of cold air prevent fatal overheating. There is also a limit to the pika s tolerance of low temperatures. Climate change threatens pikas with sizzling summer temperatures and winters of diminishing snowfall.

4 Figure

5 Figure Chapter 38: Big Ideas The Loss of Biodiversity Conservation Biology and Restoration Ecology

6 Introduction Global climate change, which scientists worldwide agree is the result of human activities, is one of many ways that our dominance over the environment affects the nonhuman inhabitants of Earth.

7 THE LOSS OF BIODIVERSITY

8 38.1 Loss of biodiversity includes the loss of ecosystems, species, and genes Biodiversity encompasses three levels: 1. ecosystem diversity, 2. species diversity, and 3. genetic diversity.

9 38.1 Loss of biodiversity includes the loss of ecosystems, species, and genes As natural ecosystems are lost, so are essential services, including productivity of natural environments for human food supplies and the purification of water used by cities.

10 Video: Coral Reef

11 Figure 38.1a

12 38.1 Loss of biodiversity includes the loss of ecosystems, species, and genes When ecosystems are lost, populations of the species that make up their biological communities are also lost. It is difficult to determine the actual rate of species loss. Extirpation is the loss of a single population of a species. Extinction is the irreversible loss of all populations of a species.

13 Figure 38.1b Percentage of species assessed 100% 80% 60% 40% 20% 0% Mammals (N = 4,667) Birds Amphibians (N = 10,004) (N = 4,750) Reptiles Total animals (N = 1,882) (N = 40,307) Data from International Union for Conservation of Nature and Natural Resources (2012). Key Lowest risk of extinction Near threatened Threatened (high risk of extinction) Extinct or extinct in the wild

14 38.1 Loss of biodiversity includes the loss of ecosystems, species, and genes Because of the network of community interactions among populations of different species within an ecosystem, the loss of one species can negatively affect the species richness of an ecosystem. In prairie ecosystems, for instance, plant and arthropod diversity is greatest near prairie dog burrows, where the soil has been altered by the animal s digging.

15 Figure 38.1c

16 38.1 Loss of biodiversity includes the loss of ecosystems, species, and genes In the United States, the Endangered Species Act protects species and the ecosystems on which they depend. Many other nations have also enacted laws to protect biodiversity. An international agreement protects some 33,000 species of wild animals and plants from trade that would threaten their survival.

17 38.1 Loss of biodiversity includes the loss of ecosystems, species, and genes The genetic diversity within and between populations of a species is the raw material that makes aand adaptation to the environment possible and is a hedge against future environmental changes.

18 38.1 Loss of biodiversity includes the loss of ecosystems, species, and genes The enormous genetic diversity of all the organisms on Earth has great potential benefit for people, too. Breeding programs have narrowed the genetic diversity of crop plants. Resistance genes found in the wild relatives of wheat may hold the key to the world s future food supply.

19 Figure 38.1d

20 38.2 CONNECTION: Habitat loss, invasive species, overharvesting, pollution, and climate change are major threats to biodiversity Human alteration of habitats poses the single greatest threat to biodiversity. Habitation alteration is caused by agriculture, urban development, forestry, mining, environmental pollution, and deforestation.

21 Figure 38.2a

22 38.2 CONNECTION: Habitat loss, invasive species, overharvesting, pollution, and climate change are major threats to biodiversity Invasive species rank second behind habitat destruction as a threat to biodiversity. Invasive species compete with native species, prey on native species, and parasitize native species.

23 38.2 CONNECTION: Habitat loss, invasive species, overharvesting, pollution, and climate change are major threats to biodiversity The Pacific island of Guam was home to 13 species of forest birds when brown tree snakes arrived as stowaways on a cargo plane. With no competitors, predators, or parasites to hinder them, the snakes proliferated on a diet of unwary birds. Three species of birds are now extinct. Four bird species were extirpated, although they survive on nearby islands. The brown tree snake also eliminated species of seabirds and lizards.

24 Figure 38.2b

25 38.2 CONNECTION: Habitat loss, invasive species, overharvesting, pollution, and climate change are major threats to biodiversity Overexploitation is the third major threat to biodiversity. Overharvesting has threatened rare trees, reduced populations of tigers, Galápagos tortoises, whales, and rhinoceroses, and depleted wild populations of game fish. In parts of Africa, Asia, and South America, wild animals are heavily hunted for food.

26 38.2 CONNECTION: Habitat loss, invasive species, overharvesting, pollution, and climate change are major threats to biodiversity Human activities produce diverse pollutants that may affect ecosystems far from their source. The water cycle transfers pollutants from terrestrial to aquatic ecosystems hundreds of miles away. The release of chemicals into the atmosphere promote the thinning of the ozone layer. Some pollutants, such as oil spills, contaminate local areas.

27 Figure 38.2c

28 38.2 CONNECTION: Habitat loss, invasive species, overharvesting, pollution, and climate change are major threats to biodiversity Biological magnification concentrates industrial wastes and pesticides as they pass through the food chain. Thus, top-level predators are usually the organisms most severely damaged by toxic compounds in the environment.

29 Figure 38.2d Concentration of PCBs Herring gull eggs 124 ppm Lake trout 4.83 ppm Smelt 1.04 ppm Zooplankton ppm Phytoplankton ppm

30 38.2 CONNECTION: Habitat loss, invasive species, overharvesting, pollution, and climate change are major threats to biodiversity Recently, scientists have recognized a new type of aquatic pollutant, plastic particles that are small enough to be eaten by zooplankton. Many body washes and facial cleansers include plastic microbeads to boost scrubbing power. Too small to be captured by wastewater treatment plants, these microparticles enter the watershed and eventually wash out to sea. Larger particles used in making plastic products are also common marine pollutants.

31 38.3 CONNECTION: Rapid warming is changing the global climate The scientific debate about global warming is over. The vast majority of scientists now agree that rising concentrations of greenhouse gases in the atmosphere, such as carbon dioxide (CO 2 ), methane (CH 4 ), and nitrous oxide (N 2 O), are changing global climate patterns.

32 38.3 CONNECTION: Rapid warming is changing the global climate Average global temperature has risen 0.8 C (1.5 F) in the last 100 years: 0.6 C of that increase occurred in the last three decades and 2 to 6 C ( F) increases are likely by the end of the 21st century, depending on the rate of future greenhouse gas emissions. Temperature increases are not distributed evenly. Warming is greater over land than sea. The largest increases are in the northernmost regions of the Northern Hemisphere.

33 Figure 38.3a Arctic Ocean Antarctic peninsula

34 38.3 CONNECTION: Rapid warming is changing the global climate Many of the world s glaciers are receding rapidly, including mountain glaciers in the Himalayas, the Alps, the Andes, and the western United States. Glacier National Park in northwest Montana will need a new name by 2030, when its glaciers are projected to disappear entirely. For example, almost all of the Grinnell Glacier is now a meltwater lake.

35 Figure 38.3b

36 Figure 38.3b

37 Figure 38.3b

38 Figure 38.3b

39 38.3 CONNECTION: Rapid warming is changing the global climate Permanent Arctic sea ice is shrinking even faster than climate models projected. Many scientists now expect the Arctic Ocean to be nearly ice-free within 25 years. Precipitation patterns are changing, bringing longer and more intense drought to some areas and torrential downpours that cause flooding in other regions. Hurricane intensity is increasing, fueled by higher sea surface temperatures.

40 38.4 CONNECTION: Human activities are responsible for rising concentrations of greenhouse gases Much of the increase in greenhouse gases is the result of burning fossil fuels. Atmospheric CO 2 did not exceed 300 ppm for 650,000 years. The preindustrial concentration was 280 ppm. Atmospheric CO 2 is about 400 ppm today. The levels of nitrous oxide (N 2 O) and methane (CH 4 ), which also trap heat in the atmosphere, have increased dramatically, too.

41 Figure 38.4a CO 2 (ppm), N 2 O (parts per billion) Carbon Dioxide (CO 2 ) Nitrous Oxide (N 2 O) Methane (CH 4 ) Year 2,000 1,800 1,600 1,400 1,200 1, Data from Climate Change 2007: The physical science bases: Contribution of Working Group I to the fourth assessment report of the International Panel on Climate Change, IPCC Secretariat. CH 4 (parts per billion)

42 38.4 CONNECTION: Human activities are responsible for rising concentrations of greenhouse gases CO 2 is removed from the atmosphere by the process of photosynthesis and stored in organic molecules such as carbohydrates. Overall, uptake of CO 2 by photosynthesis roughly equals the release of CO 2 by cellular respiration.

43 38.4 CONNECTION: Human activities are responsible for rising concentrations of greenhouse gases The CO 2 flooding into the atmosphere from combustion of fossil fuels may be absorbed by photosynthetic organisms and incorporated into biomass, but deforestation has significantly decreased the number of CO 2 molecules that can be accommodated by this pathway.

44 Figure 38.4b Photosynthesis Atmosphere Cellular respiration Combustion of fossil fuels Ocean

45 38.4 CONNECTION: Human activities are responsible for rising concentrations of greenhouse gases CO 2 may also be absorbed into the ocean. When CO 2 dissolves in water, it becomes carbonic acid. Measurable decreases in ocean ph have raised concern among biologists. Organisms that construct shells or exoskeletons out of calcium carbonate (CaCO 3 ), including corals and many plankton, are most likely to be affected.

46 38.4 CONNECTION: Human activities are responsible for rising concentrations of greenhouse gases Despite the attempts of many nations to curb carbon emissions, atmospheric CO 2 is increasing at an accelerating pace. At this rate, further climate change is inevitable.

47 38.5 Global climate change affects biomes, ecosystems, communities, and populations The distribution of terrestrial biomes, which is primarily determined by temperature and rainfall, is changing as a consequence of global warming. Melting permafrost is shifting the boundary of the tundra. Prolonged droughts will increasingly extend the boundaries of deserts. Great expanses of the Amazonian tropical rain forest will gradually become savanna as increased temperatures dry out the soil.

48 38.5 Global climate change affects biomes, ecosystems, communities, and populations Climate change in western North America has spawned catastrophic wildfires. In these mountainous regions, spring snowmelt releases water into streams that sustain forest moisture levels over the summer dry season. With the earlier arrival of spring, snowmelt begins earlier and dwindles away before the dry season ends.

49 Figure 38.5a

50 38.5 Global climate change affects biomes, ecosystems, communities, and populations The earlier arrival of warm weather in the spring is disturbing ecological communities in other ways. In many animal and plant species, certain annual spring events are triggered by temperature increases. Because global climate change affects temperature but not day length, interactions between species may become out of sync.

51 38.5 Global climate change affects biomes, ecosystems, communities, and populations The greatest impact of global climate change is affecting organisms that live at high latitudes and high elevations. Species that live on mountaintops or in polar regions have nowhere to go. Arctic polar bears, which stalk their prey on ice and need to store up body fat for the warmer months, are showing signs of starvation as their hunting grounds melt away.

52 Figure 38.5b

53 38.5 Global climate change affects biomes, ecosystems, communities, and populations Climate change has also increased the range of disease-carrying mosquitoes and enabled bark beetles to reproduce faster, promoting the destruction of millions of acres of conifers in western North America.

54 38.6 EVOLUTION CONNECTION: Climate change is an agent of natural selection Phenotypic plasticity is the ability to change phenotype in response to local environmental conditions within the normal range of expression for an individual s genotype. Researchers studying the effects of climate change on populations have detected microevolutionary changes in phenotypic plasticity.

55 38.6 EVOLUTION CONNECTION: Climate change is an agent of natural selection In Europe, the great tit bird has shifted its breeding season earlier in an example of directional selection, favoring individuals that have the greatest phenotypic plasticity and lay their eggs earlier, when the abundance of food gives their offspring a better chance of survival.

56 Figure 38.6a

57 38.6 EVOLUTION CONNECTION: Climate change is an agent of natural selection Over a period of 10 years in the Yukon Territory of Canada, where the spring temperatures have increased by about 2 C in the last three decades, the date on which female red squirrels gave birth advanced by 18 days.

58 Figure 38.6b

59 38.6 EVOLUTION CONNECTION: Climate change is an agent of natural selection From the scant evidence available at this time, it appears that some populations, especially those with high genetic variability and short life spans, may adapt quickly enough to avoid extinction; however, evolutionary adaptation is unlikely to save species with long life spans, such as polar bears and penguins, that are experiencing rapid habitat loss. The rate of climate change is incredibly fast. The IPCC estimates that as many as 30% of plants and animals will likely become extinct.

60 CONSERVATION BIOLOGY AND RESTORATION ECOLOGY

61 38.7 Protecting endangered populations is one goal of conservation biology Conservation biology is a goal-oriented science that seeks to understand and counter the rapid loss of biodiversity. Some conservation biologists direct their efforts at protecting populations of threatened species, understanding the behavior and ecological niche of the target species, including its key habitat requirements and interactions with other members of its community, and assessing threats posed by human activities.

62 38.7 Protecting endangered populations is one goal of conservation biology The black-footed ferret in the United States is one of three ferret species worldwide and the only ferret found in North America, feeds almost exclusively on prairie dogs, was reduced to just 18 individuals, has been bred in captivity, and was reintroduced into the wild. Today, about 1,000 adult ferrets are living in the wild at sites scattered from Canada to Mexico.

63 Figure 38.7a

64 38.7 Protecting endangered populations is one goal of conservation biology Captive breeding programs are being used for numerous other species whose population numbers are perilously low. In Hawaii, the silversword plants once abundant on the cinder cone of the volcano Mauna Kea were bred in greenhouses and reintroduced to reestablish wild populations.

65 Figure 38.7b

66 38.7 Protecting endangered populations is one goal of conservation biology By using a variety of methods, biologists have improved the conservation status of some endangered species, reintroduced many species to areas where they had been extirpated, and reversed declining population trends for others. However, we will not be able to save every threatened species. One way to select worthwhile targets is to identify and protect keystone species that may help preserve entire communities.

67 38.8 Sustaining ecosystems and landscapes is a conservation priority Conservation biology often aims to sustain the biodiversity of entire ecosystems and landscapes, a regional assemblage of interacting ecosystems. Landscape ecology is the application of ecological principles to the study of the structure and dynamics of a collection of ecosystems. Edges, or boundaries between ecosystems, are prominent features of landscapes. Figure 38.8A shows a landscape area in Yellowstone National Park that includes grassland and forest.

68 Figure 38.8a

69 38.8 Sustaining ecosystems and landscapes is a conservation priority Edges have their own sets of physical conditions and thus their own communities of organisms. Places where human activities have generated many edges often have less diversity and are dominated by a few species that are adapted to edges, such as the brown-headed cowbird.

70 Figure 38.8b

71 38.8 Sustaining ecosystems and landscapes is a conservation priority Where habitats have been severely fragmented, a movement corridor, a narrow strip or series of small clumps of high-quality habitat connecting otherwise isolated patches, can be a deciding factor in conserving biodiversity. In many areas, bridges or tunnels have reduced the number of animals killed as they try to cross highways.

72 Figure 38.8c

73 38.9 Establishing protected areas slows the loss of biodiversity In establishing parks, wilderness areas, and other legally protected nature reserves, conservation biologists are applying their understanding of population, community, ecosystem, and landscape dynamics.

74 38.9 Establishing protected areas slows the loss of biodiversity Choosing locations for protection often focuses on biodiversity hot spots, relatively small areas that have a large number of endangered and threatened species and an exceptional concentration of endemic species, those that are found nowhere else. Together, the hottest of Earth s biodiversity hot spots total less than 1.5% of Earth s land but are home to a third of all species of plants and vertebrates.

75 Figure 38.9a Equator Adapted from N. Meyers et al., Biodiversity Hotspots for Conservation Priorities, Nature, Fig. 1, Vol. 403: 6772 (Feb. 24, 2000). Copyright 2000 by Macmillian Publishers Ltd. Reprinted with permission.

76 38.9 Establishing protected areas slows the loss of biodiversity Migratory species pose a special problem for conservationists. Monarch butterflies occupy much of the United States and Canada during the summer months but migrate in the autumn to specific sites in Mexico and California, where they congregate in huge numbers. Sea turtles, such as the loggerhead turtle, are threatened in their ocean feeding grounds and on land.

77 Figure 38.UN01

78 Figure 38.9b

79 38.9 Establishing protected areas slows the loss of biodiversity Currently, governments have set aside about 7% of the world s land in various forms of reserves. Far-ranging animals with low-density populations predators such as wolves and tigers require extensive habitats. As conservation biologists learn more about the requirements for achieving minimum population sizes to sustain endangered species, it is becoming clear that most national parks and other reserves are far too small.

80 38.10 Zoned reserves are an attempt to reverse ecosystem disruption Despite its small size (about 51,000 km 2, the size of New Hampshire and Vermont combined), Costa Rica is a treasure trove of biodiversity, with varied ecosystems, which extend over mountains and two coasts, and is home to at least half a million species. The entire country is a biodiversity hot spot. Approximately 25% of Costa Rica s territory is currently protected in some way.

81 Figure 38.10a Nicaragua Costa Rica Panama National Parks and Reserves

82 38.10 Zoned reserves are an attempt to reverse ecosystem disruption Zoned reserves are an extensive region of land that includes one or more areas undisturbed by humans. Costa Rica is making progress in managing its reserves so that the buffer zones provide a steady, lasting supply of forest products, water, and hydroelectric power and also support sustainable agriculture.

83 38.10 Zoned reserves are an attempt to reverse ecosystem disruption Costa Rica s commitment to conservation has resulted in a new source of income for the country: ecotourism, travel to natural areas for tourism and recreation. Worldwide, ecotourism has grown into a multibilliondollar industry as tourists flock to the world s remaining natural areas. Whether ecotourism dollars ultimately help conserve Earth s biodiversity, however, remains to be seen.

84 Figure 38.10b

85 38.11 SCIENTIFIC THINKING: The Yellowstone to Yukon Conservation Initiative seeks to preserve biodiversity by connecting protected areas Pluie is a gray wolf captured in western Canada in 1991 who was then fitted with a radio tracking collar and released. Without regard to human created boundaries, she traveled from Alberta to British Columbia in Canada, to Montana, Idaho, and Washington before returning to British Columbia, a trip of more than 900 miles.

86 Figure 38.11a

87 38.11 SCIENTIFIC THINKING: The Yellowstone to Yukon Conservation Initiative seeks to preserve biodiversity by connecting protected areas However, her ignorance of the line between protected reserves and legal hunting areas proved fatal. Pluie, her mate, and three cubs were shot while travelling outside the boundary of a national park. Biologists realized that the wolf s life captured all the promise and all the pitfalls of efforts to protect her. Reserves could shield animals briefly, but true protection would have to include safe passages between reserves.

88 38.11 SCIENTIFIC THINKING: The Yellowstone to Yukon Conservation Initiative seeks to preserve biodiversity by connecting protected areas This research inspired the creation of the Yellowstone to Yukon Conservation Initiative (Y2Y), one of the world s most ambitious conservation biology efforts. The initiative aims to connect a string of more than 700 protected areas, including national, state, and provincial parks and national forests, with protected corridors where wildlife can travel safely.

89 38.11 SCIENTIFIC THINKING: The Yellowstone to Yukon Conservation Initiative seeks to preserve biodiversity by connecting protected areas Y2Y now stretches 3,200 kilometers (roughly 2,000 miles) from Wyoming to the northern part of the Yukon Territory, encompassing temperate grasslands, coniferous forest, and alpine and arctic tundra.

90 Figure 38.11b YUKON TERRITORY NORTHWEST TERRITORIES Whitehorse ALBERTA PACIFIC OCEAN BRITISH COLUMBIA Calgary Vancouver Spokane WASHINGTON MONTANA Bozeman OREGON IDAHO Jackson WYOMING

91 Figure 38.11c

92 38.11 SCIENTIFIC THINKING: The Yellowstone to Yukon Conservation Initiative seeks to preserve biodiversity by connecting protected areas Conservationists must also seek ways that wildlife populations can coexist with industries such as logging, ranching, gas and oil, and recreation that are important to the human population in the Y2Y region.

93 38.11 SCIENTIFIC THINKING: The Yellowstone to Yukon Conservation Initiative seeks to preserve biodiversity by connecting protected areas In Yellowstone National Park in Wyoming, wolves were extirpated by the mid-1920s, but in 1991, the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service launched a campaign to bring wolves back to Yellowstone.

94 38.11 SCIENTIFIC THINKING: The Yellowstone to Yukon Conservation Initiative seeks to preserve biodiversity by connecting protected areas After the burgeoning elk herd decimated the willows, beavers, for which willows are a key resource, had all but disappeared from north Yellowstone. As predation by wolves reduced the elk population, willows and other vegetation once again flourished and the beaver population recovered. Beaver dams created ponds and wetlands that attract waterfowl and support populations of amphibians, fish, and other animals.

95 38.12 CONNECTION: The study of how to restore degraded habitats is a developing science For centuries, humans have altered and degraded natural areas without considering the consequences. But as people have gradually come to realize the severity of some of the consequences of ecosystem alteration, they have sought ways to return degraded areas to their natural state. The expanding field of restoration ecology uses ecological principles to develop methods of achieving this goal.

96 38.12 CONNECTION: The study of how to restore degraded habitats is a developing science One of the major strategies in restoration ecology is bioremediation, the use of living organisms to detoxify polluted ecosystems. Bacteria have been used to clean up oil spills and old mining sites and to metabolize toxins in dump sites. Certain species of plants have successfully extracted potentially toxic metals such as zinc, nickel, and lead from contaminated soil. In Japan, sunflowers are being planted in an attempt to decontaminate soil polluted by the nuclear disaster that followed the 2011 earthquake and tsunami.

97 38.12 CONNECTION: The study of how to restore degraded habitats is a developing science Some restoration projects have the broader goal of returning ecosystems to their natural state. The Florida Kissimmee River Restoration Project is one of the largest landscape restoration projects and ecological experiments in the world, and is restoring river flow and wetlands and improving wildlife habitat. The potential for water shortages in southern Florida has renewed interest in completing an even more ambitious project, the restoration of the Everglades.

98 Figure 38.12a

99 Figure 38.12b Lake Kissimmee ATLANTIC OCEAN Lake Okeechobee FLORIDA GULF OF MEXICO Former canal

100 38.13 Sustainable development is an ultimate goal How can we best manage Earth s resources to ensure that all generations inherit an adequate supply of natural and economic resources and a relatively stable environment?

101 38.13 Sustainable development is an ultimate goal Sustainable development depends on continued research and application of ecological knowledge, requires us to connect the life sciences with the social sciences, economics, and humanities, and seeks to improve the human condition while conserving biodiversity.

102 38.13 Sustainable development is an ultimate goal The image of the snowy owl serves as a reminder of what we stand to lose if we fail to recognize and solve the ecological crises at hand. Snowy owls breed in the Arctic, one of the regions most affected by climate change. Ninety percent of their diet consists of small rodents called lemmings. Warm temperatures threaten the winter refuge space for lemmings, between the frozen ground and a thick insulating blanket of snow. Lemmings are a keystone species whose decline will reverberate throughout the tundra food web.

103 Figure 38.13

104 38.13 Sustainable development is an ultimate goal The risk of a world without adequate natural resources for all its people is not a vision of the distant future; it is a prospect for your children s lifetime, or perhaps even your own.

105 38.13 Sustainable development is an ultimate goal Although the current state of the biosphere is grim, the situation is far from hopeless. We are most likely to save what we appreciate and appreciate what we understand. Now is the time to aggressively pursue more knowledge about life and work toward long-term sustainability.

106 You should now be able to 1. Describe the three components of biodiversity. 2. Describe the greatest current threats to biodiversity, providing examples of each. 3. Describe the process of biological magnification. 4. Describe the causes and consequences of global warming. 5. Explain why the efforts to save the black-footed ferret and silversword plant from extinction are a good model for future conservation efforts.

107 You should now be able to 6. Describe the goals of landscape ecology. Describe the significance of edges and movement corridors in maintaining biodiversity. 7. Describe the significance of biodiversity hot spots. 8. Explain how zoned reserves are being used to protect ecosystems. 9. Describe the goals of the Yellowstone to Yukon Conservation Initiative.

108 You should now be able to 10. Describe the goals and methods of restoration ecology. 11. Explain why sustainable development should be the ultimate goal for the long-term maintenance of human societies and the ecosystems that support them.

109 Figure 38.UN01

110 Figure 38.UN02 Ecosystem diversity Species diversity Genetic diversity

111 Figure 38.UN03 Conservation biology seeks to conserve may involve (a) ecosystems and landscapes (b) may be protected in attempt to restore which uses (d) nature reserves may be Which support sustainable development restoration projects Lake Kissimmee Lake Okeechobee FLORIDA GULF OF MEXICO ATLANTIC OCEAN (c) to detoxify or replenish degraded ecosystems