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1 doi: 1.138/nature7926 Methods Vectorconstruction Mammaliancodonoptimizedsequencesofopto 1 ARandopto 2 AR(aminoacidsequencesinFig.1a) weresynthesizedandclonedintopcdna3.1,andfusedtothenterminusofmcherryoryfp(withits start codon deleted) using the NotI site. The linker between the optoxr and mcherry/yfp is 5 GCGGCCGCC3.LentiviralvectorscontainingSynapsinIoptoXRmCherrywereconstructedbycloning thetransgeneforeachoptoxrmcherryintotheageiandecorisitesoftheplentisynapsinih mcherrywprevectordescribedpreviously 1. LentiviralProduction Hightiter lentivirus was produced as described 1. Briefly, HEK 293FT cells were plated to 9% confluence in a 4layer cell factory (Nunc) cultured with DMEM containing 1% FBS. Cells were co transfectedwith69µgofthelentiviralvectordescribedaboveandtwohelperplasmids(69µgof pcmvr8.74 and 46 µg of pmd2.g). Media was changed at 15 h posttransfection. At 24 h post transfection,mediawaschangedwith222mlofserumfreeultraculture(cambrex)containing5 mm sodium butyrate. At 4 h posttransfection, the culture supernatant now containing virus was spunat1rpmfor5mintoremovecellulardebrisandthenfilteredusinga.45µmlowprotein bindingfilterflask.theclarifiedsupernatantwasthenultracentrifugedfor2hat55,gusingansw 28rotor(Beckman)toprecipitatethevirus.Aftercentrifugation,supernatantwasdiscardedandthe resultantviralpelletwasdissolvedinatotalof1µlofcold(4c)pbs.theresuspendedviruswas centrifugedfor5minat7rpmtoremoveremainingcellularandviraldebris.aliquotswerefrozen at8cuntilfurtheruse. Animalsurgeryandbehavior Female C57BL/6 mice, 112 weeks old, were housed and handled according to the Laboratory VertebrateAnimalsprotocolofStanfordUniversity.Virussolutionwasdeliveredtotherightnucleus accumbensasfollows.animalswereanaesthetizedunderisofluraneandfurwasshearedfromthetop ofthehead.whileunderisofluraneanesthesia,theheadoftheanimalwasplacedinastereotactic frame(davidkopfinstruments).amidlinescalpincisionwasmadeanda~1mmdiametercraniotomy was drilled 1.1mm anterior, and 1.45 mm lateral to bregma. A beveled 33gauge needle (NanoFil, WorldPrecisionInstruments)preloadedwithviruswasthenloweredintotheaccumbens(needletip at4.74.8mmventraltobregma)and1.µlofviruswasinjectedat1nl/minusinganautomated syringe pump (NanoFil, World Precision Instruments). Following injection, 35 min was allowed for tissuerelaxationandfluiddiffusionbeforeretractionoftheneedle.foranimalstargetedforacuteslice orinvivorecordingexperiments,thecraniotomywasfilledwithdentalcement(langdental)andthe incisionwasclosedusingvetbond(3m).foranimalstargetedforbehavioralanalysis,cannulas(c316g, cut4.5mmbelowthepedestal;plasticsone)wereplacedwiththepedestalflushtotheskull.cannulae weresecuredusingmetabond(parkell)anddentalcement(langdental).followingdryingofvetbond orcement,animalswereremovedfromtheframeandallowedtorecoverforatleastoneweekbefore furthermanipulation.animalsforbehavioralexperimentsunderwentthesamemanipulations 1

2 doi: 1.138/nature7926 (surgery, cannula implantation, light stimulation) as experimental animals, and were injected with vehicle (PBS) alone instead of virus. For place preference experiments, animals that did not show a baselinepreferenceforeithersidechamber(>7%or<1%)orforthecentralchamber(>4%)were admitted into the study; >9% of all animals met these criteria for an unbiased, balanced place preferencedesign 2. Acuteslicepreparation Animals were anaesthetized under isoflurane and decapitated using surgical shears (Fine Science Tools).Coronal,275µmthickslicescontainingaccumbenswerecutandstoredinacuttingsolution containing 64mM NaCl, 2.5mM KCl, 1.25mM NaH 2 PO 4, 25mM NaHCO 3, 1mM glucose, 12mM sucrose,.5mm CaCl 2 and 7mM MgCl 2 (equilibrated with 95% O 2 /5% CO 2 ). Following slicing, slices were incubated in the cutting solution at 3235C for 3 min and then at room temperature until experimentation. For ex vivo optoxr stimulation, slices were loaded on the stage of an upright microscope(bx51w,olympus)andperfusedwithanartificialcerebrospinalfluidcontaining124mm NaCl,3mMKCl,1.25mMNaH 2 PO 4,26mMNaHCO 3,1mMglucose,2.4mMCaCl 2,and1.3mMMgCl 2 (equilibratedwith95%o 2 /5%CO 2 ).Lightfroma3WLambdaDG4(Sutter)waspassedthrougha473 nm±2nmbandpassfilter(semrock)andappliedtotheslicesusinga4xobjective(.28na)for1 minfollowedimmediatelybyfixationforlateranalysis. Signalingvalidationassays HEK293FTcells(Invitrogen)weretransfectedusingLipofectamine2(Invitrogen)in24wellplates andchangedtoserumfreemedium46hrsposttransfection.forca 2+ imaging(fig.1c),cellsplatedon matrigelcoated coverslips were loaded with 5µg/ml fura2 AM in F127 Pluronic/DMSO (Probes) in Tyrode containing 1µM ATR, at 37C and 5% atmospheric CO 2 for 225min. Following loading, coverslipswereimagedat34nm/38nmonanolympusbx51wusingmetafluor(axoninstruments) controllinga3wlambdadg4(sutter).forimmunoassays(fig.2a,s1a),1824hrsaftertransfection, 1µM ATR and 5mM LiCl (to prevent IP 1 degradation) were added and plates transferred to an environmentallcontrolled microscope (Leica DMI6; 37C, 5% atmospheric CO 2 ). 5 regions/well were optically stimulated for 1 min each (Sutter 3W Lambda DG4; Semrock 54/12nm bandpass filter;1x.3naobjective);3wells/condition.followingincubation(camp/cgmp:2min;ip 1 :1hr), cellswerelysedandanalyzebyhtrf(cisbio)andabioteksynergy4reader. Immunohistochemistryandconfocalanalysis Following in vivo stimulation, mice were transcardially perfused with icecold 4% paraformaldehyde (PFA)inPBS(pH7.4)9minafterterminationofstimulation.Brainswereremovedandfixedovernight in4%pfaandthenequilibratedin3%sucroseinpbs.coronal,4µmthicksectionswerecutona freezing microtome and stored in cryoprotectant at 4C until processed for immunohistochemistry. FreefloatingsectionswerewashedinPBSandthenincubatedfor3minin.3%Tx1and3%normal donkeyserum(nds).foracutesliceexperiments,immediatelyfollowingstimulationthe275µmthick sliceswerefixedfor1hrinicecold4%pfaandincubatedwith.5%tx1and3%nds.formapk assays(fig.s1,top),immediatelyfollowinghek293cellstimulation(completedasinfig.2a),coverslips werefixedfor15min,incubatedwith.6%h 2 O 2 andthenpermeabilizedwith.1%tx1in3%nds. 2

3 doi: 1.138/nature7926 Primaryantibodyincubationswereconductedovernightin.1%Tx1and3%NDSformouseanti GAD671:5,Millipore,Billerica,MA;rabbitanticfos1:5,Calbiochem,SanDiego,CA;rabbitanti phosphocreb Ser133 1:5, Millipore. Sections were washed and incubated with secondary antibodies(1:1)conjugatedtoeitherfitcorcy5(jacksonlaboratories,westgrove,pa)for3hrsat room temperature. Following 2 min incubation with DAPI (1:5,) sections were washed and mounted on microscope slides with PVDDABCO. The remaining overnight primary antibody incubations(rabbitantiphosphoerk1/2;antiphosphomapkp381:5,promega,madison,wi;mouse monoclonalantidopamined1receptor1:5,chemicon;rabbitpolyclonalantidopamined2receptor 1:5, Millipore; goat polyclonal anticholine acetyltransferase 1:2, Millipore) were followed by incubation with biotinylated secondary antibody (1:5, Jackson Laboratories), avidinbiotin horseradishperoxidasetreatment(abc kit, VectorLabs,Burlingame,CA),andTSAdetection(Perkin Elmer,Shelton,CT)accordingtomanufacturer sinstructions. Confocal fluorescence images were acquired on a Leica TCS SP5 scanning laser microscope using a 2X/.7NA or a 4X/1.25NA oil immersion objective. Four serial stack images per condition were acquiredwithina5µmregionbeneaththecannulatract.dapistainingwasusedtodelineatenuclei for determination of the mean pixel intensity of cfos or pcreb immunoreactivity using Volocity (Improvision)software.PositiveorpCREBactivecellswereidentifiedbyintensitythreshold,andimage acquisitionandanalysiswereperformedblindtotheexperimentalconditions. 3

4 doi: 1.138/nature7926 a IP 1 (µm/mw) opto-α 1 AR YFP b p42/p44-mapk (au) * * Dark Light Vehicle 1µM NE 1µM Iso Incident Wavelength (nm). opto-β 2AR β 2AR IP 1 (µm) pcreb (au) Transduced Untransduced Incident 5nm Light Power Density (mw/mm 2 ) opto-α 1AR opto-β 2AR FigureS1:optoXRcontrolofbiochemicalsignaling a)top:actionspectraofindicatedconstructs.1min/fieldofopticalstimulationwasdeliveredthrough bandpass filters centered on indicated wavelengths through a 1X objective; IP 1 produced was measuredfollowingstimulation,andnormalizedbyincidentpoweroflight.bottom:lightresponsivity ofindicatedconstructs.ip 1 wasquantifiedfollowing1min/fieldofindicatedpowerfluxof5nmlight stimulation.b)top:p42/p44mapkactivationcanbeinducedbystimulatingopto 2 ARwithefficacy comparabletoeither1µmnorepinephrine(ne)or1µmisoproterenol(iso)actingonthewildtype 2 adrenergic receptor ( 2 AR). Data were normalized to the control mean of cells transfected with fluorescentprotein(yfp)aloneandtothebaselinecontrolforeachexperimentalround(student st testversusbaseline;*:p<.5).bottom:totestforpossiblebasalactivityinvivo,animalstransduced with the indicated construct but not acutely optically stimulated were fixed and sliced; pcreb was quantifiedinthetransducedandthecontralateral,untransducedaccumbens.nosignificantincreases inpcreblevelswereseenindarkinvivo,consistentwithinvitroresults. 4

5 doi: 1.138/nature7926 a 2 Baseline firing rate (Hz) s b XFP opto-β 2 AR opto-α 1 AR opto-α 1AR opto-β 2AR τ off = 59ms/Hz 1Hz τ on = 5.366s/Hz.5Hz τ on = 765ms/Hz 5s 5s τ off= 4.27s/Hz t on= 125ms t off= 533ms t on= 2.15s t off= 3.1s FigureS2:KineticsoffiringrateresponsetooptoXRstimulationofaccumbens a) Left: Example traces of baseline firing in control accumbens transduced with fluorescent protein (mcherry)aloneshowtypicalvariabilityinbaselinefiringratefromtracetotrace.right:baselinefiring ratesofindividualtracesduringrecordingofaccumbenstransducedwithindicatedconstruct.mean+/ SEMfiringratesshowninFigure3a.b)Kineticsparametersdescribingfiringratechangesafteronset andoffsetofopticalstimulationwereobtainedfromlinearfitstothespikefiringhistogramtrendlines aroundlightonandlightoffevents(inred).theintersectionsoftheselineswereusedtoquantifythe effectivedelaytimetoaction(t)ofoptoxrstimulation.ratesoffiringratechanges()inturnwere calculatedasthereciprocalofthedifferenceintheslopesofthelinessurroundingeachevent.the effects on firing rate occurred faster and with larger magnitude with opto 1 AR stimulation (t on =125ms, t off =533ms, on =765ms/Hz, off =59ms/Hz) than with opto 2 AR stimulation (t on =2.15s, t off =3.1s, on =5.366s/Hz, off =4.27s/Hz). We observed no significant correlation between the baselineandthechangeinfiringratesineitheropto 1 AR(r 2 =.23)tracesorforthetotalpopulation (r 2 =.25). This correlation is only statistically significant for the opto 2 AR subgroup (r 2 =.347), likelyduetoaflooreffectgiventherelativelylowbasalrateoffiring(~2.7hz). 5

6 doi: 1.138/nature7926 a b % MAP2+/mCherry+ % DRD1+/mCherry+ 1% 1% CC LV 75% 5% 75% 5% 25% 25% % o-α 1 AR o-β 2 AR % o-α 1 AR o-β 2 AR AC AcbC AcbS AcbS opto-β 2AR opto-α 1AR % DRD2+/mCherry+ 1% 75% 5% 25% c mcherry+ cells/field Medial (M) mm Central (C) Proximal Ventral (PV) Proximal Lateral (PL) 2 1 Distal Ventral (DV) % 2 1 o-α 1 AR o-β 2 AR Distal Lateral (DL) 1 1 CC LV optical fiber brightfield AC AcbC AcbS 5μm mcherry 1mm M C PL DL FigureS3:SummaryofinvivotargetingandbehavioraleffectsofoptoXRstimulation a)cannulaendplacementsforanimalsusedinbehavioralassays(figs.4,s4).eachsymbolrepresents oneanimal.cc:corpuscallosum;lv:lateralventricle;ac:anteriorcommisure;acbc:coreofnucleus accumbens;acbs:shellofnucleusaccumbens.b)percentageofmcherry+cellsthatarealsopositive formarkerindicated;nosignificantdifferenceincellphenotypebetweenconstructsforany marker tested. Extremely rare cells were also found stained for choline acetyltransferase (ChAT), with no significantdifferenceinproportionofcellslabeled.thetemporalandcelltypeprecisionoftheoptoxr method, restricting biochemical interventions to defined cells rather than a mixed population of afferentfibers,bloodvessels,localneurons,glia,andfibersofpassage,providesinsightthatcouldnot havebeenachievedbyothermethods itisimportanttonotethattheseresultsdonotrestrictreward mechanismstoasinglesubclassoflocalneuronsortoaspecificpathwayorneuromodulatorysystem, especially given the unknown role of ligandbiased signaling effects in these receptor pathways. c) DistributionofmCherry+cellsforanimalspresentedinFig.4.Countscollectedincorrespondingfield indicated on atlas in bottom right. No mcherry+ cells were observed medial to the Medial field, lateral to the Distal Lateral field, or ventral to the Distal Ventral field. Bottom left: Example brightfield(left)andmcherry(right)imagesoftransducedaccumbens. AcbC PV DV AcbS 6

7 doi: 1.138/nature7926 a b 3 2µV 5s c 8 2µV 5s cfos+/mcherry+ cells/hpf optoβ 2 AR optoα 1 AR ** Preference Score 2 1 opto-β 2 AR Total Distance (m) Distance in Center (m) opto-β AR 2 opto-β AR 2 Time in Center (s) Percent Distance in Center % 8% 4% % opto-β AR 2 opto-β AR 2 FigureS4:Behavioralresultsofopto 2 ARandstimulationinvivo a)left:individualtracesshowingnetworkresponseto1hzopticalstimulationofindicatedconstruct. Right: cfos staining showing increased neuronal activation with following 1Hz stimulation in vivocomparedtooptoxrs.(student sttestversusotherconstructs;**:p<.1)b)individual(grey) and mean (black) scores for preference (fold increased time in conditioned chamber) for animals transduced with opto 2 AR (n=9 animals) or (n=15 animals) versus control as in Fig. 4; no significant differences were seen versus control (Student s ttest; p >.5). The circuit mechanisms determining efficacy of the modulated state in driving behavior could include promoting the throughputofdistributedendogenousactivitypatternswithimportantspiketimingrelationships,or via promotion of neural circuit plasticity. Subsets of animals were stimulated at either 3.8 Hz (dashedlines;n=7animals)or1hz(solidlines;n=8animals);darkgreybarsindicatemeansforeach subgroup(neithersubgroupshowedsignificantpreferencechange);numericalscoresintables4. c)openfieldtest(oft)results;1hzopticalstimulationforeachconstruct(asinfig.4).nosignificant differenceswereseen.notably,previousstudieshaveidentifiednecessaryrolesinrewardforg q linked systems including 1 AR 3,4, type I metabotropic glutamate receptors (mglurs) 51, and PKC 11,12 ; these dataandfig.4maycomplementthosenecessitystudiesbydemonstratingthatdirectinductionofa G q linked pathway is sufficient to drive behavioral reward. Possibly relevant G q linked receptor pathways could involve adrenergic input from the NTS 13,14, type I mglurs 5,1517, type 2 serotonin receptors 18,andG q coupledd1/d2heterooligomers 19 ;indeed,theseresultsarenotinconsistentwith theimportanceofdasignalinginreward 2,21,particularlysinceDAandNEpathwaysinteract 22,23. 7

8 doi: 1.138/nature7926 TableS1 RawnumericalpCREBintensities(au)fordatarepresentedinFig.2b.MeanandSEMinboldforeach subgroup;pvaluesfortwotailedttestofsubgroupversuscontrolinitalics. opto-1ar opto-2ar mcherry Mean SEM p-value vs. mcherry TableS2 Rawnumericalbaselinefiringrates(Hz)fordatapresentedinFigs.3aandS2a.MeanandSEMinbold foreachsubgroup;pvaluesforttestofsubgroupversuscontrolinitalics. XFP oa1ar ob2ar Mean SEM pvaluevsxfp TableS3 Rawnumericalchangesinfiringrate(Hz)fordatapresentedinFig.3ccalculatedwithinthebaseline itself( Base )andbetweenthebaselineandthelightstimulationperiods( Light ). opto2ar opto1ar Base Light Base Light Mean SEM pvaluevsbase

9 doi: 1.138/nature7926 TableS4 Rawnumericalpreferencescores(RatioofDay3/Day1timesinconditionedchamber)foreachanimal representedinfigs.4ands4.meanandseminboldforeachsubgroup;pvaluesfortwotailedttest ofsubgroupversuscontrolinitalics. 1Hz 3.8Hz opto2ar opto1ar Mean SEM pvaluevs total Mean SEM.896 pvaluevs

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