Atomic number (number of protons) Element symbol. Ne Na. Kr Sr. Tm Yb Lu Th. Np Pu

Transcription

1 1

2 Figure 2.1a H Atomic number (number of protons) Element symbol Mass number (number of protons plus neutrons) 6 C 12 He 2 Li Be B C N O F Ne Na Mg Al Si P S Cl Ar K Ca Sc Ti V Cr Mn Fe Co Ni Cu Zn Ga Ge As Se Br Kr Rb Sr Y Zr Nb Mo Tc Ru Rh Pd Ag Cd In Sn Sb Te I Xe Cs Ba La Hf Ta W Re Os Ir Pt Au Hg TI Pb Bi Po At Rn Fr Ra Ac Rf Db Sg Bh Hs Mt Ds Rg Cn Ce Pr Nd Pm Sm Eu Gd Tb Dy Ho Er Tm Yb Lu Th Pa U Np Pu Am Cm Bk Cf Es Fm Md No Lr

3 Table 2.1 3

4 Figure Electron configuration Structural formula Space-filling model Ball-and-stick model H H Hydrogen gas (H 2 ) O O Oxygen gas (O 2 ) H H C H H Methane (CH 4 )

5 Figure Figure Complete outer shells Na Cl Na + Cl Na Sodium atom Cl Chlorine atom Na + Sodium ion Cl Chloride ion Sodium chloride (NaCl)

6 Hydrogen Bonds 6 The polarity of water results in weak electrical attractions between neighboring water molecules. These weak attractions are called hydrogen bonds. (slightly +) H H (slightly +) O (slightly ) 2013 Pearson Education, Inc.

7 Figure Hydrogen bond Slightly positive charge Slightly negative charge

8 Figure 2.17a 8 OH OH OH OH H + OH OH H + OH OH OH H + OH + H H + H + H + OH H + H + H + H + H + OH Basic solution Neutral solution Acidic solution

9 Figure 3.UN02 Large biological molecules Functions Components Examples 9 Carbohydrates Dietary energy; storage; plant structure Monosaccharide Monosaccharides: glucose, fructose; Disaccharides: lactose, sucrose; Polysaccharides: starch, cellulose Lipids Long-term energy storage (fats); hormones (steroids) Components of a triglyceride Fats (triglycerides); steroids (testosterone, estrogen) Proteins Enzymes, structure, storage, contraction, transport, etc. Side group Amino acid Lactase (an enzyme); hemoglobin (a transport protein) Nucleic acids Information storage T Nucleotide DNA, RNA

10 Figure 3.16 Amino group Carboxyl group 10 Side group The general structure of an amino acid Hydrophobic side group Hydrophilic side group Leucine Serine

11 Figure Carboxyl Amino 11 OH H H 2 O Dehydration reaction Peptide bond

12 Figure Nitrogenous base (A, G, C, or T) Thymine (T) Phosphate group Phosphate Base T (a) Atomic structure Sugar (deoxyribose) Sugar (b) Symbol used in this book

13 Figure Adenine (A) Guanine (G) Thymine (T) Cytosine (C) Adenine (A) Guanine (G) Thymine (T) Cytosine (C) Space-filling model of DNA

14 Figure Sugar-phosphate backbone C T G A Nucleotide Base pair A T T Hydrogen bond G A A T C A G T A T Bases C G A T (a) DNA strand (polynucleotide) (b) Double helix (two polynucleotide strands)

15 Figure DNA 15 1 Synthesis of mrna in the nucleus mrna Nucleus Cytoplasm 2 Movement of mrna into cytoplasm via nuclear pore mrna Ribosome 3 Synthesis of protein in the cytoplasm Protein

16 Figure 4.UN13 16 Mitochondrion Chloroplast Light energy PHOTOSYNTHESIS Chemical energy (food) CELLULAR RESPIRATION ATP

17 17 Animation: Energy Concepts Right click slide / select Play 2013 Pearson Education, Inc.

18 Figure Greatest potential energy Climbing converts kinetic energy to potential energy. Diving converts potential energy to kinetic energy. Least potential energy

19 Figure Energy Triphosphate Diphosphate Adenosine P P P Adenosine P P P ATP ADP Phosphate (transferred to another molecule)

20 Figure ATP Cellular respiration: chemical energy harvested from fuel molecules ADP P Energy for cellular work

21 Figure 5.UN01 21 Energy for cellular work Adenosine P P P ATP Adenosine P P P cycle ATP Adenosine triphosphate Energy from organic fuel ADP Adenosine diphosphate Phosphate (can be transferred to another molecule)

22 Figure Active site 1 Ready for substrate Enzyme (sucrase)

23 Figure Substrate (sucrose) Active site 1 Ready for substrate 2 Substrate binding Enzyme (sucrase)

24 Figure Substrate (sucrose) Active site 1 Ready for substrate 2 Substrate binding Enzyme (sucrase) H 2 O 3 Catalysis

25 Figure Substrate (sucrose) Active site 1 Ready for substrate 2 Substrate binding Enzyme (sucrase) Fructose Glucose H 2 O 4 Product released 3 Catalysis

26 Figure 6.2 Sunlight energy enters ecosystem 26 Photosynthesis C 6 H 12 O 6 CO 2 O 2 H 2 O Cellular respiration ATP drives cellular work Heat energy exits ecosystem

27 Figure 6.UN01 27 C 6 H 12 O CO 2 6 H 2 O ATP O 2 Glucose Oxygen Carbon dioxide Water Energy

28 Figure 6.6 Mitochondrion Cytoplasm 28 Cytoplasm Animal cell Plant cell Cytoplasm Mitochondrion High-energy electrons via carrier molecules Glycolysis 2 Glucose Pyruvic acid Citric Acid Cycle Electron Transport ATP ATP ATP

29 Figure 6.7a 29 INPUT OUTPUT 2 Pyruvic acid Glucose

30 Figure 6.7b-3 30 NADH P NAD + P 2 ADP 2 ATP 2 ATP 2 ADP P 2 P 3 1 P P 2 P 3 NAD + NADH P 2 ADP 2 ATP Energy investment phase Energy harvest phase

31 Figure INPUT (from glycolysis) 2 NAD + Oxidation of the fuel generates NADH NADH OUTPUT (to citric acid cycle) CoA Pyruvic acid 1 Pyruvic acid loses a carbon as CO 2 CO 2 Acetic acid Coenzyme A 3 Acetic acid attaches to coenzyme A Acetyl CoA

32 Figure 6.10 INPUT Citric acid OUTPUT 32 1 Acetic acid 2 CO 2 2 ADP + P 3 NAD + Citric Acid Cycle ATP 3 NADH 3 4 FAD FADH Acceptor molecule

33 Figure Space between membranes Protein complex Electron carrier H + H + H + H + H + 3 H + H + H + H + H + H + H + 5 H + Inner mitochondrial membrane Electron flow H + FADH 2 NADH NAD + 1 H + 2 FAD H + Matrix Electron transport chain ATP synthase H + H O H + H 2 O ADP P H + 6 ATP

34 Figure INPUT 2 ADP + 2 P 2 ATP 2 CO 2 released OUTPUT Glycolysis Glucose 2 NAD + 2 NADH 2 Pyruvic acid 2 NADH 2 NAD H + 2 Ethyl alcohol

35 Figure 6.12a 35 Glycolysis 2 Glucose Pyruvic acid 2 Acetyl CoA Citric Acid Cycle Electron Transport 2 ATP 2 ATP About 28 ATP by direct synthesis by direct synthesis by ATP synthase

36 Figure Photosynthetic cells Vein Chloroplast Inner and outer membranes Stroma Thylakoid space Granum CO 2 O 2 Stomata Leaf cross section Interior cell LM Colorized TEM

37 The Simplified Equation for Photosynthesis 37 Light energy 6 CO 2 6 H 2 O C 6 H 12 O 6 Photosynthesis Carbon dioxide Water Glucose 6 O 2 Oxygen gas

38 Figure H 2 O Chloroplast 38 Light Light reactions ATP NADPH O 2

39 Figure H 2 O Chloroplast CO 2 39 Light NADP + Light reactions ADP + P Calvin cycle ATP NADPH O 2 Sugar

40 Figure 7-UN02 40 Light H 2 O CO 2 Light reactions NADP + ADP + P ATP NADPH Calvin cycle O 2 Sugar

41 Figure 7-UN03 41 Light H 2 O CO 2 Light reactions NADP + ADP + P ATP NADPH Calvin cycle O 2 Sugar

42 Figure Primary electron acceptor 2 Energy to make ATP Primary electron acceptor 2e 2e 3 NADP + NADPH 2e Light Light 1 Reactioncenter chlorophyll H 2 O Reactioncenter chlorophyll NADPH-producing photosystem 2 H O 2 2e Water-splitting photosystem

43 Figure 7-UN07 CO 2 43 ATP NADPH Calvin cycle ADP NADP + P G3P P Glucose and other compounds (such as cellulose and starch)

44 Figure DNA double helix Beads on a string Histones TEM Nucleosome Tight helical fiber Thick supercoil Duplicated chromosomes (sister chromatids) Centromere TEM

45 Figure 8.6 S phase (DNA synthesis; chromosome duplication) 45 Interphase: metabolism and growth (90% of time) G 1 G 2 Mitotic (M) phase: cell division (10% of time) Cytokinesis (division of cytoplasm) Mitosis (division of nucleus)

46 Figure 8.7a INTERPHASE PROPHASE 46 Centrosomes (with centriole pairs) Chromatin Early mitotic spindle Centrosome Centromere Fragments of nuclear envelope Nuclear envelope Plasma membrane Chromosome (two sister chromatids) Spindle microtubules

47 Figure 8.7b METAPHASE ANAPHASE TELOPHASE AND CYTOKINESIS 47 Nuclear envelope forming Cleavage furrow Spindle Daughter chromosomes

48 Figure 8.12 Haploid gametes (n = 23) 48 n Egg cell n Sperm cell MEIOSIS FERTILIZATION Multicellular diploid adults (2n = 46) 2n Diploid zygote (2n = 46) MITOSIS and development Key Haploid (n) Diploid (2n)

49 Figure Chromosomes 2 Homologous 3 duplicate. chromosomes separate. Sister chromatids separate. Pair of homologous chromosomes in diploid parent cell Duplicated pair of homologous chromosomes Sister chromatids INTERPHASE BEFORE MEIOSIS MEIOSIS I MEIOSIS II

50 Figure 8.14a 50 MEIOSIS I: HOMOLOGOUS CHROMOSOMES SEPARATE INTERPHASE PROPHASE I METAPHASE I ANAPHASE I Centrosomes (with centriole pairs) Sites of crossing over Spindle Microtubules attached to chromosome Sister chromatids remain attached Nuclear envelope Chromatin Sister chromatids Pair of homologous chromosomes Centromere Chromosomes duplicate. Homologous chromosomes pair up and exchange segments. Pairs of homologous chromosomes line up. Pairs of homologous chromosomes split up.

51 Figure 8.14b 51 MEIOSIS II: SISTER CHROMATIDS SEPARATE TELOPHASE I AND CYTOKINESIS PROPHASE II METAPHASE II ANAPHASE II TELOPHASE II AND CYTOKINESIS Cleavage furrow Sister chromatids separate Haploid daughter cells forming Two haploid cells form; chromosomes are still doubled. During another round of cell division, the sister chromatids finally separate; four haploid daughter cells result, containing single chromosomes.

52 Figure 8.15 MITOSIS MEIOSIS 52 Prophase Duplicated chromosome Metaphase Chromosomes align. Parent cell Prophase I Metaphase I Homologous pairs align. MEIOSIS I Site of crossing over Anaphase Telophase Sister chromatids separate. 2n 2n Anaphase I Telophase I Homologous chromosomes separate. Sister chromatids separate. n n n n MEIOSIS I Haploid n = 2 MEIOSIS II

53 Figure 8.18 Prophase I of meiosis Duplicated pair of homologous chromosomes 53 Homologous chromatids exchange corresponding segments. Chiasma, site of crossing over Metaphase I Sister chromatids remain joined at their centromeres. Spindle microtubule Metaphase II Gametes Recombinant chromosomes combine genetic information from different parents. Recombinant chromosomes

54 In an Abbey Garden 54 A character is a heritable feature that varies among individuals. A trait is a variant of a character. Each of the characters Mendel studied occurred in two distinct traits Pearson Education, Inc.

55 Figure Dominant Recessive Dominant Recessive Flower color Flower position Purple White Pod shape Pod color Inflated Green Constricted Yellow Axial Terminal Stem length Seed color Seed shape Yellow Round Green Wrinkled Tall Dwarf

56 Monohybrid Crosses For each inherited character, an organism inherits two alleles, one from each parent. An organism is homozygousfor that gene if both alleles are identical. An organism is heterozygous for that gene if the alleles are different Pearson Education, Inc.

57 Monohybrid Crosses 57 Geneticists distinguish between an organism s physical appearance and its genetic makeup. An organism s physical appearance is its phenotype. An organism s genetic makeup is its genotype Pearson Education, Inc.

58 Figure 9.6 P Generation Genetic makeup (alleles) 58 Alleles carried by parents Gametes Purple flowers PP All P White flowers pp All p F 1 Generation (hybrids) Alleles segregate Gametes 1 2 P Purple flowers All Pp 1 2 p F 2 Generation (hybrids) Sperm from F 1 plant P p Eggs from F 1 plant P p PP Pp Phenotypic ratio 3 purple : 1 white Pp pp Genotypic ratio 1 PP : 2 Pp : 1 pp

59 Figure Homologous chromosomes Gene loci Dominant allele P a B Genotype: P PP Homozygous for the dominant allele a aa Homozygous for the recessive allele b Bb Recessive allele Heterozygous with one dominant and one recessive allele

60 Figure 9.24 P Generation Round-yellow seeds (RRYY) Y R Y R MEIOSIS y r y r Wrinkled-green seeds (rryy) 60 Gametes R Y FERTILIZATION y r F 1 Generation Law of Segregation: Follow the long chromosomes (carrying R and r) taking either the left or right branch. The R and r alleles segregate in anaphase I of meiosis. Only one long chromosome ends up in each gamete. Gametes Y R R Y R R Y r y r r y R r Y y MEIOSIS Metaphase I (alternative arrangements) Metaphase II All round-yellow seeds (RrYy) Y y y Y Y y y r r r r Y r Y R y R Law of Independent Assortment: Follow both the long and the short chromosomes. They are arranged in either of two equally likely ways at metaphase I. R y R They sort independently, giving four gamete types. Fertilization recombines the r and R alleles at random. F 2 Generation RY ry ry Ry FERTILIZATION AMONG THE F 1 PLANTS 9 : 3 : 3 : Fertilization results in the 9:3:3:1 phenotypic ratio in the F 2 generation.

61 Figure A B a b A B Parental gametes a b Pair of homologous chromosomes Crossing over A b a B Recombinant gametes

62 Figure 9.UN01 62 Fertilization Alleles Diploid cell (contains paired alleles, alternate forms of a gene) Meiosis Haploid gametes (allele pairs separate) Gamete from other parent Diploid zygote (contains paired alleles)

63 DNA and RNA Structure 63 DNA and RNA are nucleic acids. They consist of chemical units called nucleotides. A nucleotide polymer is a polynucleotide. Nucleotides are joined by covalent bonds between the sugar of one nucleotide and the phosphate of the next, forming a sugar-phosphate backbone Pearson Education, Inc.

64 Figure Phosphate group Nitrogenous base Sugar DNA nucleotide Nitrogenous base (can be A, G, C, or T) Thymine (T) DNA double helix Phosphate group DNA nucleotide Sugar (deoxyribose) Polynucleotide Sugar-phosphate backbone

65 Figure Hydrogen bond (a) Ribbon model (b) Atomic model (c) Computer model

66 The Central Dogma of Molecular Biology 66 Central dogma of molecular biology Formulated by Francis Crick Genetic information is transferred within biological system in 3 distinct processes Replication Transcription Translation 2013 Pearson Education, Inc.

67 The Central Dogma of Molecular Biology 67 Replication creating an exact copy. Using nucleotide sequence in DNA to produce another double stranded DNA molecule with the exact same sequences Transcription Same language and essentially the same words but in a slightly different format. Uses nucleotide sequence in DNA to produce an equivalent nucleotide sequence in an RNA molecule Translation Converting words from one language into different words in a different language. Using nucleotide sequence in RNA to produce a sequence of amino acids in a polypeptide according to specific translation rules. In essence going from the language of nucleotides to the language of amino acids Pearson Education, Inc.

68 68 Replication Transcription Translation Template DNA DNA RNA Polymer synthesized Monomer DNA RNA Polypeptide nucleotide (deoxyribose) nucleotide (ribose) Amino acid Polymerizing enzyme DNA polymerase RNA polymerase ribosome initiation site origin of replication promoter termination site none terminator start site (start codon) 1 of 3 stop codons

69 Figure DNA TRANSCRIPTION RNA Nucleus Cytoplasm TRANSLATION Protein

70 Figure Gene 1 Gene 2 DNA molecule Gene 3 DNA strand TRANSCRIPTION RNA TRANSLATION Codon Polypeptide Amino acid

71 Figure 10.16a 71 trna binding sites P site A site mrna binding site Large subunit Small subunit Ribosome (a) A simplified diagram of a ribosome

72 Figure 10.16b 72 Next amino acid to be added to polypeptide Growing polypeptide trna mrna Codons (b) The players of translation

73 Figure trna binding sites P site A site Growing polypeptide Next amino acid to be added to polypeptide mrna binding site Large subunit Small subunit Ribosome mrna trna (a) A simplified diagram of a ribosome Codons (b) The players of translation

74 Figure Polypeptide Amino acid 74 P site mrna Anticodon A site 1 Codons Codon recognition ELONGATION Stop codon 2 New peptide bond Peptide bond formation mrna movement 3 Translocation

75 HOW AND WHY GENES ARE REGULATED 75 Every somatic cell in an organism contains identical genetic instructions. They all share the same genome. So what makes cells different from one another? 2013 Pearson Education, Inc.

76 HOW AND WHY GENES ARE REGULATED 76 In cellular differentiation, cells become specialized in structure and function. Certain genes are turned on and off in the process of gene regulation Pearson Education, Inc.

77 Patterns of Gene Expression in Differentiated Cells 77 In gene expression, a gene is turned on and transcribed into RNA and information flows from genes to proteins and genotype to phenotype. Information flows from DNA to RNA to proteins. The great differences among cells in an organism must result from the selective expression of genes Pearson Education, Inc.

78 Figure Colorized TEM Colorized SEM Colorized TEM Gene for a glycolysis enzyme Pancreas cell White blood cell Nerve cell Antibody gene Insulin gene Hemoglobin gene

79 Gene Regulation in Bacteria 79 Natural selection has favored bacteria that express only certain genes only at specific times when the products are needed by the cell. So how do bacteria selectively turn their genes on and off? 2013 Pearson Education, Inc.

80 Figure 11.2 DNA 80 mrna Protein Operon turned off (lactose absent) DNA mrna Protein Lactose Operon turned on (lactose inactivates repressor)

81 Genes That Cause Cancer 81 As early as 1911, certain viruses were known to cause cancer. Oncogenes are genes that cause cancer and found in viruses Pearson Education, Inc.

82 Oncogenes and Tumor-Suppressor Genes 82 Proto-oncogenes are normal genes with the potential to become oncogenes, found in many animals, and often genes that code for growth factors, proteins that stimulate cell division or tumor supressorgeneswhich code for proteins that inhibit cell growth and division 2013 Pearson Education, Inc.

83 Oncogenes and Tumor-Suppressor Genes 83 A cell can acquire an oncogene from a virus or from the mutation of one of its own proto-oncogenes Pearson Education, Inc.

84 Figure Proto-oncogene DNA Mutation within gene Multiple copies of gene Gene in new position, under new controls Oncogene New promoter Hyperactive growth-stimulating protein Normal growth-stimulating protein in excess

85 Figure 11.UN09 Proto-oncogene (normal) Oncogene 85 Mutation Normal protein Mutant protein Normal regulation of cell cycle Out-of-control growth (leading to cancer) Normal growth-inhibiting protein Defective protein Tumor-suppressor gene (normal) Mutation Mutated tumor-suppressor gene

86 Homeostasis 86 Homeostasis is the body s ability to stay relatively unchanged even when the world around it changes. The internal environment of vertebrates includes the interstitial fluid that fills the spaces between cells and exchanges nutrients and wastes with microscopic blood vessels Pearson Education, Inc.

87 Figure External environment Animal s internal environment HOMEOSTATIC MECHANISMS Large external changes Small internal changes

88 Negative and Positive Feedback 88 Most mechanisms of homeostasis depend on a principle called negative feedback, in which the results of a process inhibit that same process, such as a thermostat that turns off a heater when room temperature rises to the set point Pearson Education, Inc.

89 Figure Response: Heating stops Thermostat (control center) turns heater off 89 Room temperature drops Stimulus: Room temperature is above set point Set point: Room temperature 20 C (68 F) Room temperature rises Stimulus: Room temperature is below set point Response: Heating starts Thermostat (control center) turns heater on

90 Negative and Positive Feedback 90 Less common is positive feedback, in which the results of a process intensify that same process, such as uterine contractions during childbirth Pearson Education, Inc.